Cognitive Control and Flexibility in the Context of Stress and Depressive Symptoms: The Cognitive Control and Flexibility Questionnaire
Open accessAbstract
Cognitive control and (cognitive) flexibility play an important role in the ability to adapt to continuously changing environments. In addition to facilitating goal-directed behaviors, cognitive control and flexibility have been implicated in emotion regulation, and disturbances of these abilities were observed in mood and anxiety disorders. The reported studies examined the processes related to cognitive control and flexibility, emotional regulation and depressive symptoms, within the context of stressful experiences. To this end, a brief (18-item) self-report measure - the Cognitive Control and Flexibility Questionnaire (CCFQ) - was developed. This questionnaire measures the extent to which an individual is capable of exerting control over intrusive, unwanted (negative) thoughts and emotions in order to flexibly adapt and cope with a stressful situation. In Study 1, the CCFQ was assessed among both university students (N = 300) and a community sample (N = 302). Preliminary analyses suggested a stable and reliable two-factor structure, that of cognitive control over emotion, and appraisal and coping flexibility. Scores on the CCFQ were strongly associated with greater depressive symptoms, even after controlling for other measures that had been taken to reflect cognitive control and (in)flexibility (e.g., the Ruminative Response Scale; Perseverative Thinking Questionnaire). In Study 2 (N = 368), lower scores on the CCFQ were related to more negative stressor appraisals (i.e., greater perceived threat and uncontrollability) of a personally meaningful stressful event. Perceptions of threat and uncontrollability, in turn, partially accounted for the association between CCFQ subscale scores and depressive symptoms. The relation between lower CCFQ scores and heightened depressive symptoms was also partially accounted for by less frequent engagement in problem-focused coping and more use of emotion-focused methods. In Study 3 (N = 47 females), lower scores on the cognitive control over emotion component of the CCFQ predicted elevated negative affect and an exacerbated cortisol response following an acute psychosocial stressor (Trier Social Stress Test). The present research points to the CCFQ as a useful self-report tool to identify ways through which cognitive control and flexibility might be manifested in stressful situations, and how reductions in flexibility might be accompanied by elevated symptoms of depression.
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CI has been associated with self- and parent-reported depression in autistic individuals in several studies.
“as several studies have found CI to be associated with self and parent-reported depression in autistic individuals (Gabrys et al., 2018; Hollocks et al., 2014, 2022a, 2022b; Lawson et al., 2015).”
From Investigating the Effects of Transdiagnostic Processes on Anxiety and Depression Symptoms in Autistic Young People: the Mediating Role of Emotion Dysregulation. (2025) · cites this paper as Gabrys et al., 2018
Study 1 Results and Discussion reports an association between cognitive control/flexibility scores and depressive symptoms. Its Methods describes student and community samples, not samples of autistic individuals; depressive symptoms were assessed with the Beck Depression Inventory, not parent reports. Thus this source supports the general association but not the claim’s autistic-population or parent-reported-depression qualifiers. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCI is associated with anxiety and depression in autistic youth and adult general population samples.
“CI has been linked to flexible problem solving and transition between activities in autistic individuals (Uddin, 2021) and associated with anxiety and depression in autistic youth (Hollocks et al., 2019) and adult general population samples (Gabrys et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2019).”
From Investigating the Effects of Transdiagnostic Processes on Anxiety and Depression Symptoms in Autistic Young People: the Mediating Role of Emotion Dysregulation. (2025) · cites this paper as Gabrys et al., 2018
The General Discussion reports that reduced cognitive control and flexibility were associated with heightened depressive symptoms, supporting the depression link in general-population samples. It says the research focused on depression and discusses anxiety only as a possible area for future use of the questionnaire; it does not establish an anxiety association in those samples. The autistic-youth portion of the citing sentence is attributed to Hollocks et al., not Gabrys et al. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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BackgroundVriezekolk, J. E., van Lankveld, W. G. J. M., Eijsbouts, A. M. M., van Helmond, T., Geenen, R., & van den Ende, C. H. M. (2011) · Rheumatology International · doi:10.1007/s00296-011-1975-y · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Marko, M., & Riečanský, I. (2018) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2018.02.004 · Cited by 53 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…perspective, cognitive flexibility has been viewed as an aspect of cognitive control (i.e., set-shifting) or the manifestation of multiple cognitive control processes which operate sequentially or in parallel (Dajani and Uddin, 2015; Marko and Riečanský, 2018; Zaehringer et al., 2018).”
Neural correlates of reappraisal considering working memory capacity and cognitive flexibility
Zähringer, J., Falquez, R., Schubert, A., Nees, F., & Barnow, S. (2018) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-017-9788-6 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Hutchison, R. M., & Morton, J. B. (2015) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.08.006 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
The neuronal dynamics underlying cognitive flexibility in set shifting tasks
Stemme, A., Deco, G., & Busch, A. (2007) · Journal of Computational Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s10827-007-0034-x · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Cortisol reactivity and emotional memory after psychosocial stress in oral contraceptive users
Mordecai, K. L., Rubin, L. H., Eatough, E. M., Sundermann, E. E., Drogos, L. L., Savarese, A. M., & Maki, P. M. (2016) · Journal of Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1002/jnr.23904 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Cognitive Control: Easy to Identify But Hard to Define
Morton, J. B., Ezekiel, F., & Wilk, H. A. (2011) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/j.1756-8765.2011.01139.x · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Hou, Z., Sui, Y., Song, X., & Yuan, Y. (2016) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2016.00230 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Coping Styles Mediate Perfectionism Associations with Depression among Undergraduate Students
Abdollahi, A., Hosseinian, S., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2018) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309.2017.1421137 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Cognitive flexibility: A trait of bipolar disorder that worsens with length of illness
O’Donnell, L. A., Deldin, P. J., Pester, B., McInnis, M. G., Langenecker, S. A., & Ryan, K. A. (2017) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2017.1296935 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Lackner, R. J., Moore, M., Minerovic, J. R., & Fresco, D. M. (2015) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-015-9702-8 · Cited by 14 · cited 1× · see citing works
“However, when negative appraisals are applied across situations without considering different characteristics of the various contexts, sustained negative mood is apt to occur (Lackner et al., 2015).”
BackgroundBlancat, G. D., García-Prieto, J., Maestú, F., & Barceló, F. (2017) · Brain Topography · doi:10.1007/s10548-017-0607-6 · Cited by 12 · cited 1× · see citing works
“, 2011; Ionescu, 2012; Dajani and Uddin, 2015; Hutchison and Morton, 2016), particularly as their definitions overlap and the same behavioral tasks have been used to assess both abilities (Gläscher et al., 2012; Díaz-Blancat et al., 2018).”
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- Kline R. B. (2016). Methodology in the Social Sciences. Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling, 4th Edn New York, NY: Guilford Press.
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Cognitive and behavioural flexibility: Neural mechanisms and clinical considerations
Uddin, L. Q. (2021) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41583-021-00428-w · Cited by 698 · see citing works
Coping Strategies and Self-Efficacy in University Students: A Person-Centered Approach
Freire, C., Ferradás, M. D. M., Regueiro, B., Rodríguez, S., Valle, A., & Núñez, J. C. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00841 · Cited by 333 · see citing works
Cherry, K. M., Hoeven, E. V., Patterson, T. S., & Lumley, M. N. (2021) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2021.101973 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Kupferberg, A., & Hasler, G. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2023.100631 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Carroll, A., York, A., Fynes‐Clinton, S., O’Connor, E. S., Flynn, L. M., Bower, J., Forrest, K., & Ziaei, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.689628 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
“Evidence indicates that stress and burnout can have a negative influence on cognitive performance across various domains including cognitive flexibility and cognitive control (Averill, 1973; Steinhauser et al., 2007; Gabrys et al., 2018).”
BackgroundPalamarchuk, I. S., & Vaillancourt, T. (2021) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2021.719674 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Demirtaş, A. S. (2019) · Anales de Psicología · doi:10.6018/analesps.336681 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Neurocognitive Mechanism of Human Resilience: A Conceptual Framework and Empirical Review
Yao, Z., & Hsieh, S. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16245123 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Li, S., Tang, Y., & Zheng, Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1065978 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“When there is a discrepancy between the two, children who are unable to modify their beliefs through the educational process, such as parent–child communication, often experience social and relational pressures that lead to negative mental health states, thus affecting the development of social–emotional competence (G…”
BackgroundPanic buying during COVID-19: Survival psychology and needs perspectives in deprived environments
Yuen, K. F., Leong, J. Z. E., Wong, Y. D., & Wang, X. (2021) · International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction · doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102421 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Control is referred to as individuals’ perceived ability to exercise control over negative invasive thoughts and emotions, and their ability to handle a traumatic situation [30].”
BackgroundGao, W., Yan, X., & Yuan, J. (2022) · Psychoradiology · doi:10.1093/psyrad/kkac014 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“More importantly, people relieving negative emotions under stressful conditions may benefit from higher cognitive control ability, which is believed to be related to depression (Gabrys et al. , 2018; Grahek et al. , 2019).”
BackgroundRodríguez, F. M. M., Martínez-Ramón, J. P., Méndez, I., & Esteban, C. R. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.647964 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Demirtaş, A. S. (2020) · Dusunen Adam The Journal of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences · doi:10.14744/dajpns.2019.00035 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“(22) found a high level of correlation between cognitive flexibility scores and negative stress assessments i n c l u d i n g g r e a t e r p e r c e i v e d t h r e a t s a n d uncontrollability.”
BackgroundResilience: Safety in the Aftermath of Traumatic Stressor Experiences
Matheson, K., Asokumar, A., & Anisman, H. (2020) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2020.596919 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“, recognizing when a situation is controllable and when it is not), andmay contribute to effective coping (Gabrys et al., 2018).”
BackgroundSelf-citationUniversity students’ cognitive flexibility and critical thinking dispositions
KARAKUŞ, İ. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1420272 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Oswald, S., Lewiński, M., Greco, S., & Villata, S. (2022) · Argumentation library · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-91017-4 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Chahal, R., Kirshenbaum, J. S., Miller, J. G., Ho, T. C., & Gotlib, I. H. (2020) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2020.08.010 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“The ECN and executive functioning is particularly important during periods of ambiguity or stress, when adaptive reorientation of cognitive processes is necessary to successfully regulate emotional responses to stressors and meet situational demands (50).”
Carroll, A., O’Connor, E. S., Forrest, K., Fynes‐Clinton, S., York, A., Ziaei, M., Flynn, L. M., Bower, J., & Reutens, D. C. (2021) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-021-01777-4 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Anxiety, stress, and binge eating tendencies in adolescence: a prospective approach
Lim, M. C., Parsons, S. D., Goglio, A., & Fox, E. (2021) · Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40337-021-00444-2 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“On a mechanistic level, depression is associated with reduced cognitive and affective flexibility [87], which are critical in effective emotional regulation [84].”
BackgroundParsing the components of forgiveness: Psychological and neural mechanisms
Fourie, M. M., Hortensius, R., & Decety, J. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.02.020 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Demirtaş, A. S. (2020) · Anales de Psicología · doi:10.6018/analesps.381181 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Stresli Durumlarda Bilişsel Kontrol ve Bilişsel Esneklik: Bir Ölçek Uyarlama Çalışması
Demirtaş, A. S. (2019) · Psikoloji Çalışmaları / Studies in Psychology · doi:10.26650/sp2019-0028 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“In this respect, Gabrys et al. (2018) have suggested that cognitive control and flexibility can be demonstrated through a variety of key processes such as attention, assessment / reassessment and approval of specific coping strategies, and have developed the Cognitive Control and Flexibility…”
BackgroundInfluentialZimmer‐Gembeck, M. J. (2021) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.3043 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Öztürk, G., Karamete, A., & Çetin, G. (2020) · International Journal of Contemporary Educational Research · doi:10.33200/ijcer.623668 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“…Bilgin, 2017; Camcı Erdoğan, 2018; Chen, He, & Fan, 2019; Çikrıkci, 2018; Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010; Doğan Laçin & Yalçın, 2019; Esen Aygün, 2018; Gabrys, Tabri, Anisman, & Matheson, 2018; Günaydın & Öztürk, 2016; Gündüz, 2013; Kaptanbaş Gürbüz & Sezgin Nartgün, 2018; Kercood, Lineweaver, Frank,…”
Godara, M., Silveira, S., Matthäus, H., Heim, C., Voelkle, M., Hecht, M., Binder, E. B., & Singer, T. (2021) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0256323 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Cespón, J., & Carreiras, M. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.07.030 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Wang, C., Zhang, Z.-H., Wiley, J., Fu, T., & Yan, J. (2021) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-03945-9 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Theodoratou, M., & Argyrides, M. (2024) · Psychiatry International · doi:10.3390/psychiatryint5010005 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Du, M., Peng, Y., Li, Y., Zhu, Y., Yang, S., Li, J., Zou, F., Wang, Y., Wu, X., Zhang, Y., et al. (2022) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2022.108319 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Experience-dependent neurodevelopment of self-regulation in adolescence
Meredith, W. J., & Silvers, J. A. (2024) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2024.101356 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“…most individuals, many emotion-related psy-chopathologies also emerge or worsen during this period (Lee et al., 2014), which may in part be driven by maladaptive emotion regulation development and related cognitive control skills (Gabrys et al., 2018; LaMontagne et al., 2022; Simonds et al., 2007).”
Atta, M. H. R., El‐Ashry, A. M., & Mousa, M. A. E.-G. A. (2024) · Journal of research in nursing · doi:10.1177/17449871241252011 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Maladaptive ER strategies have been implicated in the development and maintenance of depressive symptoms (Compare et al., 2014; Gabrys et al., 2018; Koval et al., 2023).”
Affective and coping responses to quarantine hotel stays
Pratt, S., & Tolkach, D. (2022) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.3126 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Riding the (brain) waves! Using neural oscillations to inform bilingualism research
Rossi, E., Soares, S. M. P., Prystauka, Y., Nakamura, M. S., & Rothman, J. (2022) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728922000451 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“…2000), (ii) the Error Related Negativity (ERN), which indexes conflict monitoring (e.g., Botvinick, Braver, Barch, Carter & Cohen, 2001; Gabrys, Tabri, Anisman & Matheson, 2018) and (iii) the N450, which reflects both conflict monitoring and inhibition (Larson, Kaplan, Kaushanskaya &…”
Effects of cognitive flexibility on dynamics of emotion regulation and negative affect in daily life
Wang, X., Shao, S., Cheng, H., Blain, S. D., Tan, Y., & Jia, L. (2024) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2024.2423154 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Finally, future work could use cognitive-flexibility questionnaires with more fine-grained subscales (Gabrys et al., 2018).”
Liu, C., Rotaru, K., Lee, R. S. C., Tiego, J., Suo, C., Yücel, M., & Albertella, L. (2021) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2021.00027 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Zhou, Y., Yu, N. X., Dong, P., & Zhang, Q. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105345 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Shinozuka, K., Jerotic, K., Mediano, P. A. M., Zhao, A. T., Preller, K. H., Carhart-Harris, R. L., & Kringelbach, M. L. (2024) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-024-03187-1 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“We encourage future research to develop tools for modelling these relationships in order to improve our scienti fi c understanding of psychedelics.”
Yuan, R., Nechvatal, J. M., Buckmaster, C. L., Ayash, S., Parker, K. J., Schatzberg, A. F., Lyons, D. M., & Menon, V. (2021) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-021-00956-0 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
İnözü, M., Gök, B. G., Tüzün, D., & Hacıömeroğlu, A. B. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02450-8 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“CF has been associated with psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010; Gabrys et al., 2018).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPsychological Flexibility: Toward a Better Understanding of a Key Concept
Malo, R., Acier, D., & Bulteau, S. (2022) · Trends in Psychology · doi:10.1007/s43076-022-00188-1 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“…propose more specific protocols, such as the paradigm of the Reversal Learning Task (Schlagenhauf et al, 2014) or intra/extra-dimensional set shifting (Scheggia et al., 2014)), that focus mainly on the control/shifting aspect of cognitive flexibility and cognitive control (Gabrys et al., 2018).”
Benefitting or suffering from a paradoxical leader? A self-regulation perspective
Fürstenberg, N., Booth, J. E., & Alfes, K. (2023) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/00187267231199644 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“We argue that cognitive flexibility is a central trait that can support followers in making sense of and deciphering PLB, which is required for effective self-regulation (Gabrys et al., 2018; Schilling et al., 2023).”
Godara, M., Everaert, J., Sánchez-López, Á., Joormann, J., & Raedt, R. D. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-36211-3 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“In the original study 58 , internal consistency for CCFQ ranged between 0.89 and 0.93 for separate subscales in community and student samples, and in the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha for the CCF scores across the five measurement occasions were as follows: 0.87, 0.91, 0.92, 0.93 and 0.93.”
InfluentialGu, Q., Zhao, X., Lin, L., Teo, W., Liu, L., & Yuan, S. (2024) · International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2024.100512 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Entrapment, Hopelessness, and Cognitive Control: A Moderated Mediation Model of Depression
Choi, H., & Shin, H. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11081065 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“As opposed to cognitive vulnerability, cognitive control, the belief that one can eventually control and make differences to stressful situations, enables individuals to reappraise adversity and manage negative emotions over stressors [38].”
BackgroundHaim‐Nachum, S., & Levy‐Gigi, E. (2021) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.02.015 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Haim‐Nachum, S., & Levy‐Gigi, E. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.615289 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“, 2004) and sometimes cognitive flexibility (Moore and Malinowski, 2009; Gabrys et al., 2018).”
BackgroundAteş, B., & SAĞAR, M. E. (2021) · Uşak üniversitesi eğitim araştırmaları dergisi/Uşak Üniversitesi eğitim araştırmaları dergisi · doi:10.29065/usakead.887799 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Cognitive fusion and personality traits in the context of mindfulness: A cross-sectional study
Pux, S., Hahn, E. W., Bergmann, N., Hahne, I., Pauly, L., Ta, T. M. T., Pijenborg, G. H. M., & Böge, K. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0273331 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Moreover, cognitive fusion has continually been related to negative affect, as affirmed in evidence of ACT treatment effects [22], to rigidity as a feature of affective disorders [23] and to maladaptive emotion regulation strategies [24, 25].”
BackgroundLiu, C., & Gershon, E. S. (2024) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-024-03195-1 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Fynes‐Clinton, S., Sherwell, C. S., Ziaei, M., York, A., O’Connor, E. S., Forrest, K., Flynn, L. M., Bower, J., Reutens, D. C., & Carroll, A. (2022) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-022-00123-0 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Prasad, R., Tarai, S., & Bit, A. (2022) · Cognitive Neurodynamics · doi:10.1007/s11571-022-09888-x · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“CC relies on various executive functions (EF), such as short-term memory, self-consciousness and conflict monitoring (Gabrys et al. 2018).”
BackgroundElsayed, N. M., Luby, J. L., & Barch, D. M. (2023) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105303 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Outlining a novel psychometric model of mental flexibility and affect dynamics
Borghesi, F., Chirico, A., & Cipresso, P. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1183316 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Hou, W. K., Liang, L., Hougen, C., & Bonanno, G. A. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18063103 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“stronger at higher and medium levels relative to lower levels of perceived financial strain, consistent with previous evidence in emotion regulation [74], coping strategies [75,76], and states of mind such as cognitive control [77].”
Anderson, E. M., Demis, S., D’Acquisto, H., Engelhardt, A., & Hearing, M. C. (2021) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2021.621751 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Prenatal Exposure to Chemical Mixtures and Cognitive Flexibility among Adolescents
Oppenheimer, A. V., Bellinger, D. C., Coull, B. A., Weisskopf, M. G., & Korrick, S. (2021) · Toxics · doi:10.3390/toxics9120329 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“a number of important skills including effective problem solving, emotional regulation, and resilience [3].”
BackgroundLiu, C., Rotaru, K., Chamberlain, S. R., Ren, L., Fontenelle, L. F., Lee, R. S. C., Suo, C., Raj, K., Yücel, M., & Albertella, L. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19159592 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“In the current study, psychological inflexibility is defined as the inability to adapt mindset or behaviour according to situational demands [21].”
BackgroundDehghani, F., & Bahari, Z. (2022) · Iran Journal of Nursing · doi:10.32598/ijn.34.5.2 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Zhu, Y., & Deng, W. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0282220 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“, 65 cognitive reappraisal); these cognitive abilities and skills are shared by adaptive emotion regulation 66 strategies [19-20].”
Hearing loss, depression, and cognition in younger and older adult CI candidates
Huber, M., Reuter, L., Weitgasser, L., Pletzer, B., Rosch, S., & Illg, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2023.1272210 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Explicit Instruction and Executive Functioning Capacity: A New Direction in Cognitive Load Theory
Siregar, N. R. (2021) · Journal of Education · doi:10.1177/00220574211033256 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Shifting is a skill to adapt and shift from one rule to another in a flexible manner which is supported by working memory and inhibitory control (Blakey et al., 2016; Diamond, 2014; Gabrys et al., 2018).”
BackgroundJustification of Decision-Making in Response to COVID-19 Socio-Scientific Dilemmas
Dalyot, K., Rozenblum, Y., & Baram‐Tsabari, A. (2022) · Argumentation library · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-91017-4_13 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Balkıs, M., & Duru, E. (2020) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-020-00343-6 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Barnes, G. L., Ozsivadjian, A., Baird, G., Absoud, M., & Hollocks, M. J. (2025) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-024-06246-0 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Stress Molecular Signaling in Interaction With Cognition
Lugenbühl, J. F., Viho, E. M. G., Binder, E. B., & Daskalakis, N. P. (2024) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.09.023 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Rudnik, A. A., Sobczak, K., Sawicki, A. J., & Zdun‐Ryżewska, A. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0321946 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Cognitive flexibility is crucial for adapting to continuously changing environments and is associated with various goal-oriented behaviours such as creativity, problem-solving, multitasking, and decision-making, although its concepts have been challenging to define [20,21].”
Menadue, E. A., Castillo, P. A., & Bernardo, A. B. I. (2021) · Australian Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00050067.2021.1952841 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“The alternatives facet involves the ability to perceive multiple differing explanations for human behaviour whereas the control facet is thought to measure the inclination to construe difficult situations as controllable (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010; Gabrys et al., 2018).”
BackgroundWang, Q., Chen, H., Hu, W., & Zhao, F.-Q. (2023) · Children and youth services review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2023.107209 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Borghesi, F., Mancuso, V., Bruni, F., Cremascoli, R., Bianchi, L., Mendolicchio, L., Cattaldo, S., Chirico, A., Mauro, A., Pedroli, E., et al. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0293921 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Win‐win”: Dual‐path influence of workplace spirituality on work‐family enrichment
Liu, Y., Si, Z., Shi, Y., Li, B., Liu, P., Liu, S., & Sun, Q. (2024) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12495 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Capunitan, K. B., Lirado, J. D., & Gregana, C. F. (2023) · International Journal of Scientific and Management Research · doi:10.37502/ijsmr.2023.6504 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Kaynak, H., Nazlıgül, M. D., & Cengil, B. B. (2024) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.2024.2352730 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Greater cognitive flexibility might be associated with the use of more adaptive coping strategies (Gabrys et al., 2018).”
Bali, C., Feher, Z., Arató, N., Kiss, B. L., Lábadi, B., & Zsido, A. N. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-63120-w · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“That is, individuals who consider themselves more adaptable might perceive relatively new technologies (such as smartphones or tablets) as less threatening and more controllable 15,21,41 .”
BackgroundJain, T., Shukla, R., & Panwar, N. (2024) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941241268625 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“In this recent work Gabrys et al. (2018) conceptualized cognitive control as paying attention towards pertinent task as hand, while sieving out the irrelevant ones.”
InfluentialCreating a resilient pedagogy: Character strengths intervention for aspiring educators
Janapati, G., & Vijayalakshmi, V. (2024) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104465 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
KİYE, S., & Habeş, E. Ç. (2024) · İnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.17679/inuefd.1481952 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Kluwe‐Schiavon, B., Zorzi, L. D., Meireles, J., Leite, J., Sequeira, H., & Carvalho, S. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0269496 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Resilience trajectories of cancer survivors: a meaning-making perspective
Park, C. L., Dibble, K. E., Sinnott, S. M., Sanft, T. B., & Bellizzi, K. M. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818849-1.00008-4 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Satıcı, B., Tekin, E. G., & Deniz, M. (2020) · Yildiz Technical University - AVESIS · doi:10.17556/erziefd.632776 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“We expect cognitive flexibility will lead to increased feelings of well-being since it allows individuals to cope with the problems of changing the environment, regulate their emotions and experience more positive emotions (Gabrys et al., 2018; Wilson, Nusbaum, Whitney, Hinson, & 2018).”
InfluentialSometti, D., Ballan, C., Wang, H., Braun, C., & Enck, P. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-83994-4 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Reliability and validation of the Turkish adaptation of the mistake rumination scale
Kabadayı, F., & Mercan, O. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01972-5 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Ram, D., Mushtaq, N. F., Honnugudi, B. D., & Alammar, M. A. (2022) · Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.4103/ijoem.ijoem_213_21 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Fen, Y., Jia, S., Liu, Q., Guo, Z., Li, S., Wang, X., & Pan, L. (2025) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.70285 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Avcı, M. Z. (2025) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105540 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Design and Validation of the Adaptation to Change Questionnaire: New Realities in Times of COVID-19
Fuentes, M. D. C. P., Jurado, M. D. M. M., Martínez, Á. M., Fernández‐Martínez, E., Valenzuela, R. F., Herrera‐Peco, I., Jiménez‐Rodríguez, D., Méndez, I., García, A. S., Márquez, M. D. M. S., et al. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17155612 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“This capacity in turn depends on the ability to detect characteristics and changes in situations [38].”
BackgroundInfluentialVolpe, V. V., Beacham, A. R., & Olafunmiloye, O. (2019) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105319869812 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Such flexibility in the context of racial discrimination would be optimal, as it would allow Black young adults to generate and judge the costs and benefits of a multitude of response options, a cognitive appraisal process (Bonanno and Burton, 2013; Gabrys et al., 2018; Outlaw, 1993).”
BackgroundThe Role of Executive Function in Children’s Mindfulness Experience
Butterfield, K. M., & Roberts, K. P. (2021) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-021-01802-6 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Researchers have proposed a relationship between flexible thinking and depressive symptoms, such that greater cognitive flexibility may be associated with the “endorsement of more effective coping strategies” (Gabrys et al., 2018).”
BackgroundLiu, C., Chen, H., Xu, W., Dai, S., & Lin, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1422845 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…the mediating effect of cognitive flexibility between H-SCE and depression symptom among urban vocational college students, (C) the mediating effect of cognitive flexibility between H-SCE and depression symptom among rural vocational college students. and depressive symptom (Gabrys et al., 2018).”
Junker, N. M., Heimrich, J., Häusser, J. A., & Rigotti, T. (2025) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2025.2553651 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…on days when individuals constructively ponder about work problems more than usual, they should be more likely to see how their reflections are relevant (have the necessary cognitive flexibility; Gabrys et al., 2018) and can apply those to the family role, thus improving WFE in the evening.”
Xu, A. J., Sun, H., & Ma, J. (2026) · Human Resource Management · doi:10.1002/hrm.70050 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Marchiol, F., Lionetti, F., Luxardi, G. L., Cavallero, C., Roberts, M., & Penolazzi, B. (2020) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.2781 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Ill-being or well-being? Energising international business travellers
Rattrie, L., & Kittler, M. G. (2020) · Journal of Organizational Effectiveness · doi:10.1108/joepp-02-2019-0011 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…is often present in IBTs) is thought to slow down cognitive flexibility, (Jiang and Rau, 2017) meaning they may struggle to adapt to new situations (that travel typically presents), lose perceived control over their abilities and be prone to negative thoughts and emotions (Gabrys et al., 2018).”
BackgroundMa, R., Zhang, Q., Zhang, C., & Xu, W. (2024) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-024-01908-1 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Cognitive flexibility is a key component of executive functioning, lack of which has been suggested and initially proved as a risk factor for psychological distress including depression and anxiety [27, 48–51].”
BackgroundGazik, A. B., Vagharseyyedin, S., Saremi, Z., & Shafiee, F. (2024) · Musculoskeletal Care · doi:10.1002/msc.1923 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
EEG entropy modulation as a biomarker of emotion regulation and resilience
Creel, W. T., & Hartman, R. E. (2025) · IBRO Neuroscience Reports · doi:10.1016/j.ibneur.2025.10.013 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Cognitive flexibility, the ability to adapt one ’ s thinking in response to new or unexpected events, is a fundamental component of healthy psychological functioning (Gabrys et al., 2018).”
Reframing oxytocin as a behavioral flexibility hormone
Walle, K. M., Sartorius, A. M., Deilhaug, E., Kang, H., Nærland, T., Andreassen, O. A., Westlye, L. T., & Quintana, D. S. (2026) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2026.106628 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Genç, A. B. (2024) · Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi · doi:10.17066/tpdrd.1311383_7 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Demirtaş, A. S. (2021) · Dusunen Adam The Journal of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences · doi:10.14744/dajpns.2020.00124 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“(28) to evaluate the perceived ability of a person to exercise control over Table 1: Sociodemographic characteristics of the participants (n=674)”
BackgroundInfluentialÇutuk, Z. A. (2021) · Journal of Educational Sciences & Psychology · doi:10.51865/jesp.2021.2.17 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Özen, F., & ÜÇÜNCÜ, A. S. (2022) · International Journal of Psychology and Educational Studies · doi:10.52380/ijpes.2022.9.2.752 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
- Authors
- Gabrys, R. L., Tabri, N., Anisman, H., & Matheson, K.
- Affiliations
- Carleton University (CA)
- Royal Ottawa Mental Health Centre (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Gabrys, Robert L.
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2018-11-19
- Volume
- 9
- Pages
- 2219-2219
- ISSN
- 1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6252356
- OpenAlex
- W2901368915
- Cited by
- 281
- References
- 97
- Citations by year
- 2026: 43 · 2025: 52 · 2024: 49 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 7
- FWCI
- 20.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Carleton University's Institutional Repository (MacOdrum Library, Carleton University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (9180)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Keywords
- cognitive control, cognitive flexibility, depressive symptoms, stress, emotion regulation, coping flexibility, stress appraisal, threat perception, problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping, rumination, perseverative thinking, cortisol response, negative affect, Trier Social Stress Test, self-report measure development
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