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Cited by 25Water Resource Management and QualityGender, Education, and Development IssuesChild Nutrition and Water Access

What if your husband doesn’t feel the pressure? An exploration of women’s involvement in WaSH decision making in Nyanchwa, Kenya.

Open access
Abu, Thelma Zulfawu, Bisung, Elijah, Elliott, Susan J.·2019·International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
DOI 10.3390/ijerph16101763PMC PMC6572541
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Abstract

Access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) is a major challenge in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Women and girls suffer the main burden of a lack of access to WaSH because they are primarily responsible for collecting water for their homes. However, they are often excluded from WaSH decision-making and implementation processes. This research sought to explore women’s experiences in participating in WaSH decision-making through a case study in Nyanchwa, Kenya. Twelve (12) key informant interviews were conducted with community leaders and members regarding challenges and possible measures for enhancing women and girls’ participation in WaSH decision-making. From this research, it is evident that economic challenges and cultural factors such as male dominance, greatly inhibit women and girls’ participation in WaSH decision-making and implementation processes. Other factors such as time constraints and low literacy rates also emerged. The paper concludes with a call for collaboration among women’s groups to enhance collective action for improved access to WaSH. This will undoubtedly lead to enhanced community health and wellbeing (Sustainable Development Goal 3, SDG3) through the empowerment of women (Sustainable Development Goal 5, SDG5).

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This qualitative case study in Nyanchwa, Kenya, finds that women and girls are largely excluded from WaSH decision-making by interlinked male dominance, economic dependence, time constraints, and low literacy, even as they bear the main WaSH burdens. It calls for collaboration among women’s groups and for policies that economically and socially empower women to improve WaSH access and community health (SDG3/SDG5).

Key findings

  • Women and girls face disproportionate WaSH impacts: wasted time collecting water, insecurity including rape and murder, WaSH-related disease, psychosocial stress, and school dropout.
  • The main barriers to women’s participation in WaSH decision-making were male dominance and economic challenges, with time constraints and low literacy rates also emerging; these barriers were described as interlinked and reinforcing.
  • Cultural norms require women to seek permission from husbands or fathers to participate in community activities or join social groups, and men often speak on women’s behalf in meetings.
  • The paper reports 12 key informant interviews and notes that in sub-Saharan Africa women and girls spend about 40 billion hours a year collecting water; it also cites that 844 million people lack basic water and 2.3 billion lack basic sanitation globally.

Methods

  • Qualitative case study using key informant interviews (n = 12) conducted in June 2016 in Nyanchwa, Kenya, with community leaders, members, and WaSH stakeholders recruited via snowball sampling.
  • Interviews lasted about 90 minutes each, were recorded with permission and transcribed verbatim; all were in English except one conducted in Gusii and later translated into English.
  • Analysis used descriptive and analytic coding, first deductively from the guiding ecosocial theory and then inductively; themes coalesced around causes of lack of WaSH, experiences of women and girls, and factors affecting women’s participation in WaSH decision-making.

Limitations

  • The paper does not include a formal limitations section.
  • Evident from the text: the study is a small qualitative case study (12 key informants) in one rural community, recruited by snowball sampling, so findings are not statistically generalizable.
  • Evident from the text: data were collected in June 2016, one interview required translation from Gusii, and the analysis relies on self-reported interview accounts.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/ijerph16101763

Cites

30 of 30 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 23 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Cultural factors such as male dominance greatly inhibit women and girls' participation in WaSH decision-making and implementation processes in Nyanchwa.

    “From this research, it is evident that economic challenges and cultural factors such as male dominance, greatly inhibit women and girls’ participation in WaSH decision-making and implementation processes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    Walking long distances to collect safe water is a necessary activity for women and girls in Nyanchwa.

    “Walking long distances to collect safe water is a necessary activity for women and girls in search of water.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Economic challenges greatly inhibit women and girls' participation in WaSH decision-making and implementation processes in Nyanchwa.

    “From this research, it is evident that economic challenges and cultural factors such as male dominance, greatly inhibit women and girls’ participation in WaSH decision-making and implementation processes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Some students in Nyanchwa dropped out of school entirely because they missed a lot of school hours due to responsibility for collecting water.

    “There were concerns about some students who dropped out of school entirely because they missed a lot of school hours due to their responsibility for collecting water”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    During prolonged dry seasons in Nyanchwa, water is very scarce.

    “During prolonged dry seasons, water is very scarce”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 34
  • May combine two claims. 18
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 2

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The fast inflow of people into Nyanchwa has contributed to a severe lack of WaSH in the community.

    “The fast inflow of people into the Nyanchwa community has contributed to a severe lack of WaSH in the community”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The Nyanchwa community is experiencing a fast rate of population increase, yet development of WaSH infrastructure is progressing at a slow pace.

    “The Nyanchwa community is experiencing a fast rate of population increase, yet development of infrastructure for the provision of safe WaSH to community members is progressing at a slow pace”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Very few households in Nyanchwa were connected to the water system; most householders with no access to safe water needed to go in search of water and other sanitation services.

    “Given that very few households were connected to the water system, most of the householders with no access to safe water in their homes needed to go in search of water and other sanitation services.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    When women and girls in Nyanchwa hide to go for defecation, boys follow and rape them.

    “When they (women and girls) hide to go for defecation, the boys follow and rape them”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Some community members in Nyanchwa believed that leaders were not accountable and did not take responsibility toward ensuring access to water and sanitation.

    “However, some community members believed that leaders were not accountable and did not take responsibility toward ensuring access to water and sanitation”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Implementation of WaSH infrastructure in Nyanchwa is laden with issues of local politics and power.

    “Implementation of infrastructure such as WaSH is laden with issues of local politics and power”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Nyanchwa has prolonged dry seasons that affect the quantity and quality of water available to residents.

    “Nyanchwa has prolonged dry seasons and this affects the quantity and quality of water available to residents.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingown data

    In Nyanchwa culture, water should be brought home by females (mothers and young girls).

    “In our culture, water should be brought home by the females who are the mothers and the young girls.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Women and girls are barely seen at decision-making gatherings, and even when present seldom contribute because they cannot fully express themselves in English or Swahili, the main languages used in community meetings in Nyanchwa.

    “Women and girls are barely seen at decision-making gatherings, and even when present seldom contribute because they cannot fully express themselves in English or Swahili, which are the main languages used during community meetings in Nyanchwa.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    In this study, the community schools lacked appropriate WaSH facilities, hence girls who were menstruating missed school days because they would rather stay at home where they could manage their period and keep themselves clean.

    “In this study, the community schools lacked appropriate WaSH facilities, hence girls who were menstruating missed school days because they would rather stay at home where they could manage their period and keep themselves clean.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    In this research, the greatest barriers to participating in WaSH decision-making were male dominance and economic challenges.

    “In this research, the greatest barriers to participating in WaSH decision-making were male dominance and economic challenges.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Women in Nyanchwa constantly engage in collecting water and hence have knowledge regarding access, and the quality and quantity of water.

    “Women constantly engage in collecting water and hence have knowledge regarding access, and the quality and quantity of water.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Women and girls are the most affected since they are required to collect water for their homes and to keep their homes clean.

    “Women and girls are the most affected since they are required to collect water for their homes and to keep their homes clean.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    As culture demands, women play very important roles in organizing domestic activities and are responsible for upkeep of families, which hinders their participation in community activities.

    “As culture demands, women play very important roles in organizing domestic activities. They are responsible for the upkeep of their families, hindering their participation in community activities”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingreasoning

    From this study, low female literacy further impacted the participation of women and girls in WaSH decision-making.

    “From this study, this further impacted the participation of women and girls in WaSH decision-making”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Women who worked for themselves were mostly engaged in hawking to get money to sustain themselves, hence they may not have had time to participate in WaSH meetings.

    “Women who worked for themselves were mostly engaged in hawking (selling at street stalls) to help get some money to sustain themselves, hence they may not have had the time to participate”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Women also risk losing their lives as reported in this research.

    “Women also risk losing their lives as reported in this research.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Women and girls needed the permission of their husbands and fathers to participate in WaSH decision-making and to join social groups that might help solve their needs.

    “Women and girls not only needed the permission of their husbands and fathers to participate but also to join some social groups that might help solve their needs”
    • Also stated in: § 6. Discussion · plain
      “To engage in activities, many women must seek the permission of their husbands and fathers.”
    • Also stated in: § 6. Discussion · plain
      “In this research, not all women belonged to these social groups because they were not permitted by their husbands.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The lack of WaSH at the community level and in the school environment were critical factors in girls not staying in school.

    “The lack of WaSH at the community level, and the lack of WaSH in the school environment, were critical factors in girls not staying in school.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Women in Nyanchwa are typically absent in decision-making processes.

    “However, women are typically absent in decision-making processes in many communities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingreasoning

    Schoolgirls develop diseases such as urinary tract infections from using unhygenic sanitary infrastructure in schools.

    “Schoolgirls develop diseases such as urinary tract infections from using unhygenic sanitary infrastructure in schools.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) is a major challenge in sub-Saharan Africa.

    “Access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) is a major challenge in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1] WHO/UNICEF (2017). Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines, WHO. Available online: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2017/launch-version-report-jmp-water-sanitation-hygiene.pdf.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In sub-Saharan Africa, women and girls spend about 40 billion hours a year collecting water.

    “In sub-Saharan Africa, it is estimated that women and girls spend about 40 billion hours a year collecting water [2].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2] (2018, March 15). Global Policy Forum. Available online: https://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/218/51875-women-spend-40-billion-hours-collecting-water.html.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Portions of the transcript were coded on two different occasions to ensure consistency in the emerging themes.

    “Portions of the transcript were coded on two different occasions to ensure consistency in the emerging themes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Lack of access to WaSH infrastructure in schools may result in educational inequalities as girls are more likely to drop out of school.

    “This implies that the lack of access to WaSH infrastructure in schools may result in educational inequalities as girls are more likely to drop out of school [11].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Agol, 2018, Gender differences related to WASH in schools and educational efficiency, Water Altern.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Key themes were reviewed several times to ensure the themes and subthemes were coded in the same category.

    “The key themes were reviewed several times to ensure the themes and subthemes were coded in the same category.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In India, only 9% of sanitation decisions were made by women, and only 11% were made in consultation with women.

    “For instance, Routray et al. [14] found that only 9% of sanitation decisions in India were made by women, and only 11% were made in consultation with women.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14] Routray, P., Torondel, B., Clasen, T., and Schmidt, W. (2017). Women’s role in sanitation decision making in rural coastal Odisha, India. PLoS ONE, 12. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In Senegal, the involvement of women in the management of water supply networks has contributed to a significant increase in water coverage since 2004.

    “Similarly, in Senegal, the involvement of women in the management of the water supply networks has contributed to the significant increase in water coverage since 2004 [17].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [17] (2018, March 15). The Water Blog. Available online: https://blogs.worldbank.org/water/3-innovative-ways-manage-rural-water-supply.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Prior to data collection, the University of Waterloo Ethics Review Board approved the study (21484).

    “Prior to data collection, the University of Waterloo Ethics Review Board approved the study (21484).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The researchers observed saturation after interviewing twelve key informants.

    “The researchers observed saturation after interviewing twelve (12) key informants from these various community groups.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    During periods of water scarcity, women and girls struggle to fulfill their sociocultural obligations regarding house-keeping.

    “Thus, during periods of water scarcity, women and girls struggle to fulfill their sociocultural obligations regarding house-keeping [4,5].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [4] Sultana, 2011, Suffering for water, suffering from water: Emotional geographies of resource access, control and conflict, Geoforum source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [5] Yerian, 2014, The Role of Women in Water Management and Conflict Resolution in Marsabit, Kenya, Environ. Manag. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    According to UNESCO, only 2/3 of people in the world are said to be literate.

    “According to UNESCO, only 2/3 of people in the world are said to be literate.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites UNESCO

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Time wasted in searching for safe water affects women's ability to be economically productive.

    “Also, time wasted in searching for safe water affects women’s ability to be economically productive.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Cairns et al. [7] indicated that lack of access to WaSH is critical to girls' enrolment and school attendance.

    “Cairns et al. [7] have indicated that lack of access to WaSH is critical to girls’ enrolment and school attendance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7] Cairns, 2017, Gender mainstreaming and water development projects: Analyzing unexpected enviro-social impacts in Bolivia, India, and Lesotho, Gend. Place Cult. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This makes it hard to follow the conversation when participating in such meetings, and acquiring a translator to help share one's thoughts can be burdensome.

    “This makes it hard to follow the conversation when participating in such meetings, and acquiring a translator to help share one’s thoughts can be burdensome.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    These stressors have been identified at the community level and are detrimental to health and wellbeing.

    “These stressors have been identified at the community level and are detrimental to health and wellbeing [31].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] Bisung, 2016, ‘Everyone is exhausted and frustrated’: Exploring psychosocial impacts of the lack of access to safe water and adequate sanitation in Usoma, Kenya, J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Leder et al. [37] assessed two internationally funded programs aimed at empowering women by improving access to water for both domestic and productive use in Nepal.

    “For instance, Leder et al. [37] assessed two internationally funded programs aimed at empowering women by improving access to water for both domestic and productive use in Nepal.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37] Leder, 2017, Reframing women’s empowerment in water security programmes in Western Nepal Reframing women’s empowerment in water security programmes in Western Nepal, Gend. Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Koolwal and Walle [36] indicated that there was no evidence that improved access to water leads to greater off-farm work for women.

    “Koolwal and Walle [36] in their research indicated that there was no evidence that improved access to water leads to greater off-farm work for women.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] Koolwal, 2013, Access to Water, Women’s Work and Child Outcomes, Econ. Dev. Cult. Chang. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    In WaSH meetings, men were most often left to talk on behalf of women, which was likely not a true reflection of the issue.

    “The males were most often left to talk on behalf of the women, which was likely not a true reflection of the issue”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Some studies have shown that women do not necessarily take up economically profitable jobs even though the hours spent on water collection may reduce.

    “However, some studies have shown that women do not necessarily take up economically profitable jobs even though the hours spent on water collection may reduce [35].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35] Ivens, 2008, Does Increased Water Access Empower Women?, Soc. Int. Dev.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    From this research it is evident that women need to engage in some economic activities since financial independence is a major determinant of wellbeing.

    “From this research it is evident that women need to engage in some economic activities since financial independence is a major determinant of wellbeing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Financial independence is a major determinant of wellbeing.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    This is a major challenge hindering girls from attaining their full potential.

    “This is a major challenge hindering girls from attaining their full potential.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Some women did not attend training sessions because they did not have the permission of their mothers-in-law or husbands.

    “Some women did not attend training sessions because they did not have the permission of their mothers-in-law or husbands.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37] Leder, 2017, Reframing women’s empowerment in water security programmes in Western Nepal Reframing women’s empowerment in water security programmes in Western Nepal, Gend. Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Khanna and Das [34] reported that poorly designed and constructed WaSH facilities lacking safety were the reason women did not use sanitation facilities provided but engaged in open defecation.

    “Similarly, Khanna and Das [34] in their study in India, reported that the poorly designed and constructed nature of WaSH facilities which lacked safety—e.g., lacking seats or slabs, poorly lit or without locks—were the reason women did not use the sanitation facilities provided but engaged in open defecation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34] Khanna, 2016, Why gender matters in the solution towards safe sanitation? Reflections from rural India, Glob. Public Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These barriers are interrelated and perpetuate a cycle of dependency and disproportionate exposure of women and girls to water-related insecurities.

    “These barriers are interrelated and perpetuate a cycle of dependency and disproportionate exposure of women and girls to water-related insecurities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationown data

    The impact of high rates of female school dropout as a result of lack of access to safe WaSH is directly linked to the low rate of female literacy, especially in SSA.

    “This impact of high rates of female school dropout as a result of lack of access to safe WaSH is directly linked to the low rate of female literacy, especially in SSA.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The regional Gender Parity Index for sub-Saharan Africa is 0.92, indicating more literate men than women.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The projects failed to acknowledge and address how the dynamic interplay of cultural norms, age, marital status, gender roles and power relations shaped access to, and control over, water resources.

    “The projects failed to acknowledge and address how the dynamic interplay of cultural norms, age, marital status, gender roles and power relations shaped access to, and control over, water resources.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37] Leder, 2017, Reframing women’s empowerment in water security programmes in Western Nepal Reframing women’s empowerment in water security programmes in Western Nepal, Gend. Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Sommer et al. [33] indicated that open-air sanitary facilities, insufficient bathing areas, and lack of lighting at night intensified the risks of sexual violence for those using unimproved facilities.

    “Sommer et al. [33] indicated that open-air sanitary facilities, insufficient bathing areas, and lack of lighting at night intensified the risks of sexual violence for those using unimproved facilities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Sommer, 2014, Violence, gender and WASH: Spurring action on a complex, under- documented and sensitive topic, Environ. Urban. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Regardless of all these hazards, females in marginalized areas continue to engage in open defecation due to limited sanitation facilities.

    “Regardless of all these hazards, females in marginalized areas continue to engage in open defecation due to limited sanitation facilities [32].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] Morgan, 2017, Water, sanitation, and hygiene in schools: Status and implications of low coverage in Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique, Rwanda, Uganda, and Zambia, Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A future effect of girls dropping out of school is the high rate of illiteracy among women.

    “A future effect of this is the high rate of illiteracy among women.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
50 of 50

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Women and girls are primarily responsible for collecting water for their homes.

    “Women and girls suffer the main burden of a lack of access to WaSH because they are primarily responsible for collecting water for their homes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is currently limited literature focused on the economic and social power of women to take up roles in WaSH decision-making, particularly in the context of sub-Saharan Africa.

    “There is currently limited literature focused on the economic and social power of women to take up roles in WaSH decision-making, particularly in the context of SSA.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Community members are expected to make contributions for the construction of boreholes and other WaSH infrastructure.

    “In some cases, community members are expected to make contributions for the construction of boreholes and other WaSH infrastructure.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The regional Gender Parity Index for sub-Saharan Africa is 0.92, indicating more literate men than women.

    “The regional Gender Parity Index (GPI) for sub-Saharan Africa is 0.92, indicating that there are more literate men compared to women.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Men are typically the heads of their households and are seen as providers for their homes.

    “Men are typically the heads of their households and are seen as providers for their homes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Financial independence is a major determinant of wellbeing.

    “From this research it is evident that women need to engage in some economic activities since financial independence is a major determinant of wellbeing.”
6 of 6

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Women's and girls' bodily integrity has been constrained due to water and sanitation conditions, including limiting bathing and washing, restricting food and water, suppressing defecation and urination urges, delaying changing menstrual materials, and taking anti-diarrheal medicines when lacking sufficient, safe or clean water and sanitation.

    “Specifically, women limited bathing and washing hands, clothes, menstrual materials, and bathrooms; [76,86,98,100,123,144,165,197,198,200,202,229,232,281] restricted food and water to avoid defecation and urination; [135, 168, 174, 179, 184, 192, 212, 224] suppressed defecation and urination urges; [2,62,181,184,188,190,191, 214, 217, 229, 235, 236, 238, 241, 247, 248, 250, 270] delayed changing”

    From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [76]

  • All research describing fear or experience of non-partner physical violence focused on sanitation, while all articles focusing on intimate partner physical violence and most focusing on interpersonal conflict focused on water.

    “All research describing fear or experience of non-partner physical violence focused on sanitation, while all articles focusing on intimate partner physical violence and most focusing on interpersonal conflict focused on water (_((((xxx))))_)[61, 62, 76, 86, 89, 101, 110, 111, 123, 135, 143, 144, 171, 173-175, 177, 179, 181, 182, 188, 189, 191, 198, 201, 243, 251, 255, 257, 258, 260, 262, 264, 266,”

    From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [76]

  • Fear and experiences of sexual violence were reported by women and girls who had to leave home for water and sanitation needs; women openly defecating were particularly vulnerable to non-partner sexual violence compared to those using latrines.

    “Fear and experiences of sexual violence were reported by women and girls who had to leave home for water and sanitation needs (_((((xxx))))_)[70, 76, 108, 123, 135, 143, 153, 171, 173-175, 177, 179, 181, 183, 184, 186-189, 191, 198, 214, 231, 233, 238-240, 255, 258, 259, 261, 265, 268-270] Research from India, [181, 268] Kenya, [269] and Nigeria [70] found women openly defecating were particularly”

    From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [76]

  • Related to water, walking long distances and collecting from certain sources reportedly exposed women and girls to sexual violence, particularly as men studied women's patterns.

    “Related to water, walking long distances and collecting from certain sources reportedly exposed women and girls to sexual violence, [76,153,179,231,258,259] particularly as men studied women's patterns [179].”

    From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [76]

  • When women lacked control over income and assets, they had limited decision-making power over improving or accessing water sources; constrained finances limited women's access to preferred water sources, desired water quantity, and water treatment methods.

    “When women lacked control over income and assets, they had limited decision-making power over improving or accessing water sources [65,76,86,118,123,194,199,201,258,292].Constrained finances limited women's access to preferred water sources, [64,86,111,158,170,194,[197][198][199] desired water quantity, [86,192] and water treatment methods [86,111,118,204,293].”

    From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [76]

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

3 of the 33 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. Agol, 2018, Gender differences related to WASH in schools and educational efficiency, Water Altern., 11, 284
  2. Ogendi, 2015, Assessment of the microbial load of Nyanchwa-Riana Rivers, Kisii, Kenya, Int. J. Fish. Aquat. Stud., 2, 182
  3. Hay, I. (2016). Qualitative Research Methods in Human Geography, Oxford University Press. [4th ed.].

Cited by

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Authors
Abu, T. Z., Bisung, E., & Elliott, S. J.
Affiliations
  • University of Waterloo (CA)
  • Queen's University (CA)
Corresponding author
Abu, Thelma Zulfawu
ORCID
Venue
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2019-05-18
Volume
16
Issue
10
Pages
1763
ISSN
1660-4601 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/ijerph16101763
PMC
PMC6572541
OpenAlex
W2946488921
Semantic Scholar
b4359a359481d33cbdef8b50ffb6b388d4266d96
Cited by
24
References
33
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 1
FWCI
0.90
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
Funders
University of Waterloo
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water Resource Management and Quality
  • Social Sciences › Education › Gender, Education, and Development Issues
  • Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Child Nutrition and Water Access
Keywords
women's participation, water, sanitation and hygiene, gender inequality, male dominance, women's empowerment, women's organizations, collective action, cultural barriers, time constraints, literacy
MeSH terms
Decision Making, Female, Humans, Hygiene, Kenya, Male, Power, Psychological, Sanitation, Water, Water Supply, Spouses

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-08.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-08.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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