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Controlled Drug Delivery Systems: Current Status and Future Directions

Adepu, Shivakalyani, Ramakrishna, Seeram·2021·Molecules
DOI 10.3390/molecules26195905PMC PMC8512302
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Abstract

The drug delivery system enables the release of the active pharmaceutical ingredient to achieve a desired therapeutic response. Conventional drug delivery systems (tablets, capsules, syrups, ointments, etc.) suffer from poor bioavailability and fluctuations in plasma drug level and are unable to achieve sustained release. Without an efficient delivery mechanism, the whole therapeutic process can be rendered useless. Moreover, the drug has to be delivered at a specified controlled rate and at the target site as precisely as possible to achieve maximum efficacy and safety. Controlled drug delivery systems are developed to combat the problems associated with conventional drug delivery. There has been a tremendous evolution in controlled drug delivery systems from the past two decades ranging from macro scale and nano scale to intelligent targeted delivery. The initial part of this review provides a basic understanding of drug delivery systems with an emphasis on the pharmacokinetics of the drug. It also discusses the conventional drug delivery systems and their limitations. Further, controlled drug delivery systems are discussed in detail with the design considerations, classifications and drawings. In addition, nano-drug delivery, targeted and smart drug delivery using stimuli-responsive and intelligent biomaterials is discussed with recent key findings. The paper concludes with the challenges faced and future directions in controlled drug delivery.

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Figures

Figure 1 Dosage form composition.
Figure 1 Dosage form composition.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 2 BCS Classification of drugs.
Figure 2 BCS Classification of drugs.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 3 Various routes of drug administration.
Figure 3 Various routes of drug administration.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 4 Classification of conventional dosage forms.
Figure 4 Classification of conventional dosage forms.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 5 Classification of solid dosage forms.
Figure 5 Classification of solid dosage forms.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 6 Solid unit dosage forms: (a) Tablets, (b) Effervescent tablets, (c) Chewable tablets, (d) Pills, (e) Hard-gelatine capsules, (f) Soft-gelatine capsules, (g) Lozenges. (h). Granules.
Figure 6 Solid unit dosage forms: (a) Tablets, (b) Effervescent tablets, (c) Chewable tablets, (d) Pills, (e) Hard-gelatine capsules, (f) Soft-gelatine capsules, (g) Lozenges. (h). Granules.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 7 Semisolid dosage forms.
Figure 7 Semisolid dosage forms.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 8 (a) Types of transdermal patches, (b) Transdermal patch applied on skin, (c) First commercially available Scopolamine transdermal patch (reproduced from [21] with permission from Perrigo, licensed under Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license).
Figure 8 (a) Types of transdermal patches, (b) Transdermal patch applied on skin, (c) First commercially available Scopolamine transdermal patch (reproduced from [21] with permission from Perrigo, licensed under Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 9 Sterile and non-sterile liquid dosage forms.
Figure 9 Sterile and non-sterile liquid dosage forms.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 10 Pharmacokinetic phases of a drug: 1. Absorption, 2. Distribution, 3. Metabolism, 4. Excretion.
Figure 10 Pharmacokinetic phases of a drug: 1. Absorption, 2. Distribution, 3. Metabolism, 4. Excretion.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 11 Schematic of transport of drug through the plasma membrane by passive transport and active transport (reproduced from [34] with permission from the OpenStax, (part of Rice University, which is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit) and [35] licensed under Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) international license).
Figure 11 Schematic of transport of drug through the plasma membrane by passive transport and active transport (reproduced from [34] with permission from the OpenStax, (part of Rice University, which is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit) and [35] licensed under Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) international license).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 12 Schematic of barriers to drug distributions (a) Plasma protein binding, (b) Anatomical barriers.
Figure 12 Schematic of barriers to drug distributions (a) Plasma protein binding, (b) Anatomical barriers.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 13 Schematic of drug metabolism in the liver as well as the cells.
Figure 13 Schematic of drug metabolism in the liver as well as the cells.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 14 Schematic illustration of drug excretion from the body by kidneys, liver, skin and airways.
Figure 14 Schematic illustration of drug excretion from the body by kidneys, liver, skin and airways.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 15 Schematic of factors accountable for the reduction in bioavailability.
Figure 15 Schematic of factors accountable for the reduction in bioavailability.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 16 Drug plasma levels and release profiles.
Figure 16 Drug plasma levels and release profiles.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 17 Schematic of drug safety-therapeutic index.
Figure 17 Schematic of drug safety-therapeutic index.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 18 Plasma drug levels with time after administering (a) Single conventional dose, (b) Multiple doses, (c) Increased single dose.
Figure 18 Plasma drug levels with time after administering (a) Single conventional dose, (b) Multiple doses, (c) Increased single dose.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 19 Limitations of Conventional drug delivery systems.
Figure 19 Limitations of Conventional drug delivery systems.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 20 A typical bolus of (a) Conventional DDS; (b) Controlled DDS.
Figure 20 A typical bolus of (a) Conventional DDS; (b) Controlled DDS.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 21 Medical Rationale behind controlled release drug delivery systems (CRDDS).
Figure 21 Medical Rationale behind controlled release drug delivery systems (CRDDS).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 22 General design considerations of controlled release drug delivery systems (CRDDSs).
Figure 22 General design considerations of controlled release drug delivery systems (CRDDSs).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 23 Dissolution-controlled delivery systems.
Figure 23 Dissolution-controlled delivery systems.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 24 Schematic of diffusion-controlled delivery systems.
Figure 24 Schematic of diffusion-controlled delivery systems.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 25 Membrane-controlled drug delivery systems.
Figure 25 Membrane-controlled drug delivery systems.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 26 Monolithic/matrix-controlled drug delivery systems.
Figure 26 Monolithic/matrix-controlled drug delivery systems.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 27 Schematic of osmotic pressure-controlled drug delivery system.
Figure 27 Schematic of osmotic pressure-controlled drug delivery system.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 28 Example of osmotically controlled drug delivery systems (reproduced from [58,59,60] with permission from Pfizer Laboratories Div Pfizer Inc., Johnson & Johnson Consumer Inc. 2019 and Bayer licensed under Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license).
Figure 28 Example of osmotically controlled drug delivery systems (reproduced from [58,59,60] with permission from Pfizer Laboratories Div Pfizer Inc., Johnson & Johnson Consumer Inc. 2019 and Bayer licensed under Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 29 Schematic of mechanism of drug release from the swelling-controlled drug delivery systems.
Figure 29 Schematic of mechanism of drug release from the swelling-controlled drug delivery systems.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 30 Schematic of bulk erosion and surface erosion.
Figure 30 Schematic of bulk erosion and surface erosion.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 31 Polymer-drug conjugate systems.
Figure 31 Polymer-drug conjugate systems.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 32 Some common examples of nanocarriers in controlled drug delivery.
Figure 32 Some common examples of nanocarriers in controlled drug delivery.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 33 pH-responsive drug release of Tamoxifen from chitosan nanoparticles (adapted from [147] with copyright permission from Marine Drugs, MDPI licensed under Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license).
Figure 33 pH-responsive drug release of Tamoxifen from chitosan nanoparticles (adapted from [147] with copyright permission from Marine Drugs, MDPI licensed under Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 34 Enzyme-responsive drug release from doxorubicin loaded PEG lipid-GLFG peptide liposome designed as a cathepsin B cleavable peptide linker to hydrolyse and release drugs specifically in tumour cells (reproduced from [151] with permission from Polymers, MDPI licensed under Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license).
Figure 34 Enzyme-responsive drug release from doxorubicin loaded PEG lipid-GLFG peptide liposome designed as a cathepsin B cleavable peptide linker to hydrolyse and release drugs specifically in tumour cells (reproduced from [151] with permission from Polymers, MDPI licensed under Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 35 Green laser light induced nanogels (reproduced from [156] with permission from Polymers, MDPI licensed under Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license).
Figure 35 Green laser light induced nanogels (reproduced from [156] with permission from Polymers, MDPI licensed under Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 36 Thermo-responsive drug release by PNIPAM hydrogel (reproduced from [160] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry).
Figure 36 Thermo-responsive drug release by PNIPAM hydrogel (reproduced from [160] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 37 Ultrasound triggered release from microbubbles by mechanical effects by acoustic cavitation and thermal effects by acoustic radiation (reproduced from [167] with permission from Fluids, MDPI licensed under Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license).
Figure 37 Ultrasound triggered release from microbubbles by mechanical effects by acoustic cavitation and thermal effects by acoustic radiation (reproduced from [167] with permission from Fluids, MDPI licensed under Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 38 Molecular Imprinting polymers synthesis protocol (reproduced from [176] with permission from Sensors, MDPI licensed under Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license).
Figure 38 Molecular Imprinting polymers synthesis protocol (reproduced from [176] with permission from Sensors, MDPI licensed under Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license).CC BY · PubMed Central

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Metadata

Authors
Adepu, S., & Ramakrishna, S.
Venue
Molecules
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2021-09-29
Volume
26
Issue
19
Pages
5905
ISSN
1420-3049
DOI
10.3390/molecules26195905
PMC
PMC8512302
Cited by
1,691
References
7
Language
en
Licence
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)

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