Glutamine: Metabolism and Immune Function, Supplementation and Clinical Translation

Cruzat, Vinicius; Macedo Rogero, Marcelo; Noel Keane, Kevin; Curi, Rui; Newsholme, Philip

doi:10.3390/nu10111564

Cited by 1,261Clinical Nutrition and GastroenterologyAmino Acid Enzymes and MetabolismAnimal Nutrition and Physiology

Glutamine: Metabolism and Immune Function, Supplementation and Clinical Translation

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Cruzat, Vinicius, Macedo Rogero, Marcelo, Noel Keane, Kevin, Curi, Rui, Newsholme, Philip·2018·Nutrients

DOI 10.3390/nu10111564PMC PMC6266414

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Abstract

Glutamine is the most abundant and versatile amino acid in the body. In health and disease, the rate of glutamine consumption by immune cells is similar or greater than glucose. For instance, in vitro and in vivo studies have determined that glutamine is an essential nutrient for lymphocyte proliferation and cytokine production, macrophage phagocytic plus secretory activities, and neutrophil bacterial killing. Glutamine release to the circulation and availability is mainly controlled by key metabolic organs, such as the gut, liver, and skeletal muscles. During catabolic/hypercatabolic situations glutamine can become essential for metabolic function, but its availability may be compromised due to the impairment of homeostasis in the inter-tissue metabolism of amino acids. For this reason, glutamine is currently part of clinical nutrition supplementation protocols and/or recommended for immune suppressed individuals. However, in a wide range of catabolic/hypercatabolic situations (e.g., ill/critically ill, post-trauma, sepsis, exhausted athletes), it is currently difficult to determine whether glutamine supplementation (oral/enteral or parenteral) should be recommended based on the amino acid plasma/bloodstream concentration (also known as glutaminemia). Although the beneficial immune-based effects of glutamine supplementation are already established, many questions and evidence for positive in vivo outcomes still remain to be presented. Therefore, this paper provides an integrated review of how glutamine metabolism in key organs is important to cells of the immune system. We also discuss glutamine metabolism and action, and important issues related to the effects of glutamine supplementation in catabolic situations.

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L-glutamine is the most abundant amino acid in the body and has an essential role in lymphocyte proliferation and cytokine production.
“L-glutamine is the most abundant amino acid in the body, with an essential role in lymphocyte proliferation and cytokine production [175].”
From International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: nutritional considerations for single-stage ultra-marathon training and racing (2019) · cites this paper as [175]
In catabolic and hypercatabolic situations, L-glutamine can be essential to help maintain normal metabolic function.
“In catabolic and hypercatabolic situations, L-glutamine can be essential to help maintain normal metabolic function and is, therefore, included in clinical nutritional supplementation protocols and recommended for immune-suppressed individuals [175].”
From International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: nutritional considerations for single-stage ultra-marathon training and racing (2019) · cites this paper as [175]

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Mediation by NF-κB of cytokine induced expression of intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) in an intestinal epithelial cell line, a process blocked by proteasome inhibitors
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Glutamine Transporters Are Targets of Multiple Oncogenic Signaling Pathways in Prostate Cancer
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A comparative study of short‐ and long‐TE 1H MRS at 3 T for in vivo detection of 2‐hydroxyglutarate in brain tumors
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Toll-like Receptor Agonists and Febrile Range Hyperthermia Synergize to Induce Heat Shock Protein 70 Expression and Extracellular Release
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Evidence that glutamine is involved in neutrophil function
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Evaluation of a novel food composition database that includes glutamine and other amino acids derived from gene sequencing data
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L-glutamine Supplementations Enhance Liver Glutamine-Glutathione Axis and Heat Shock Factor-1 Expression in Endurance-Exercise Trained Rats
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pH control of hepatic glutamine degradation. Role of transport
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Glutamine synthetase expression in muscle is regulated by transcriptional and posttranscriptional mechanisms
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l -glutamine and l -alanine supplementation increase glutamine-glutathione axis and muscle HSP-27 in rats trained using a progressive high-intensity resistance exercise
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Self-citation
Oral Supplementation of Glutamine Attenuates the Progression of Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis in C57BL/6J Mice
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Physiological regulation of the heat shock response by glutamine: implications for chronic low-grade inflammatory diseases in age-related conditions
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Dietary Supplements Commonly Used by Cancer Survivors: Are There Any Benefits?
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Cell hydration controls autophagosome formation in rat liver in a microtubule-dependent way downstream from p38MAPK activation
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Characteristics of the activation of glutaminase by ammonia in sonicated rat liver mitochondria
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Is the glutamine story over?
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A revista do Colégio Brasileiro de Cirurgiões
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Glutamine effects on heat shock protein 70 and interleukines 6 and 10: Randomized trial of glutamine supplementation versus standard parenteral nutrition in critically ill children
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Modulation of the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signalling pathway by glutamine in peritoneal macrophages of a murine model of protein malnutrition
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The Pharmacokinetic Responses of Humans to 20 g of Alanyl-Glutamine Dipeptide Differ with the Dosing Protocol but Not with Gastric Acidity or in Patients with Acute Dengue Fever
Klassen, P., Mazariegos, M., Solomons, N. W., & Fürst, P. (2000) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/130.2.177 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Hepatic glutaminase mRNA is confined to part of the urea cycle domain in the adult rodent liver lobule
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Self-citation
Plasma Glutamine Concentrations in Liver Failure
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Glutamine and alanine metabolism in lungs of septic rats
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Hexosamines stimulate apoptosis by altering SIRT1 action and levels in rodent pancreatic -cells
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Effects of glutamine supplementation on kidney of diabetic rat
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Metabolic fuelling of proper T cell functions
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Lactate in the Regulation of Tumor Microenvironment and Therapeutic Approaches
de la Cruz-López, K. G., Castro-Muñoz, L. J., Reyes-Hernández, D. O., García-Carrancá, A., & Manzo-Merino, J. (2019) · Frontiers in Oncology · doi:10.3389/fonc.2019.01143 · Cited by 940 · see citing works
Role of oxidative stress in depression
Bhatt, S., Nagappa, A. N., & Patil, C. R. (2020) · Drug Discovery Today · doi:10.1016/j.drudis.2020.05.001 · Cited by 839 · see citing works
Strengthening the Immune System and Reducing Inflammation and Oxidative Stress through Diet and Nutrition: Considerations during the COVID-19 Crisis
Iddir, M., Alex Brito, O., Dingeo, G., Sosa, S., Samouda, H., Frano, M. R. L., & Bohn, T. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12061562 · Cited by 795 · see citing works
Diabetic vascular diseases: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic strategies
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Amino acid metabolism in health and disease
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Targeting glutamine metabolism as a therapeutic strategy for cancer
Jin, J., Byun, J., Choi, Y., & Park, K. (2023) · Experimental & Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1038/s12276-023-00971-9 · Cited by 574 · see citing works
Diet and Immune Function
Childs, C. E., Calder, P. C., & Miles, E. A. (2019) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu11081933 · Cited by 532 · see citing works
Energy metabolism in health and diseases
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Glutamine Links Obesity to Inflammation in Human White Adipose Tissue
Petrus, P., Lecoutre, S., Dollet, L., Wiel, C., Sulen, A., Gao, H., Tavira, B., Laurencikiene, J., Rooyackers, O., Checa, A., et al. (2020) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2019.11.019 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Reprogramming of glutamine metabolism and its impact on immune response in the tumor microenvironment
Ma, G., Zhang, Z., Li, P., Zhang, Z., Zeng, M., Liang, Z., Li, D., Wang, L., Chen, Y., Liang, Y., et al. (2022) · Cell Communication and Signaling · doi:10.1186/s12964-022-00909-0 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Glutamine: Metabolism and Immune Function, Supplementation and Clinical Translation
Cruzat, V., Macedo Rogero, M., Noel Keane, K., Curi, R., & Newsholme, P. (2018) · doi:10.20944/preprints201809.0459.v1 · Cited by 1,261 · see citing works
Self-citation
Polystyrene microplastics up-regulates liver glutamine and glutamate synthesis and promotes autophagy-dependent ferroptosis and apoptosis in the cerebellum through the liver-brain axis
Yin, K., Wang, D., Zhao, H., Wang, Y., Zhang, Y., Liu, Y., Li, B., & Xing, M. (2022) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119449 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
The Emerging Role of l-Glutamine in Cardiovascular Health and Disease
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Hallmarks of aging and immunosenescence: Connecting the dots
Rodrigues, L. P., Teixeira, V. R., Alencar‐Silva, T., Simonassi-Paiva, B., Pereira, R. W., Pogue, R. E., & Carvalho, J. L. (2021) · Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.cytogfr.2021.01.006 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
A 12‐month pilot study outcomes of vagus nerve stimulation in Crohn's disease
Sinniger, V., Sonia Pellissier, A., Fauvelle, F., Trocmé, C., Hoffmann, D., Vercueil, L., Cracowski, J., Olivier David, A., & Bonaz, B. L. (2020) · Neurogastroenterology & Motility · doi:10.1111/nmo.13911 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Integrative Modeling of Quantitative Plasma Lipoprotein, Metabolic, and Amino Acid Data Reveals a Multiorgan Pathological Signature of SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Kimhofer, T., Lodge, S., Whiley, L., Gray, N., Loo, R. L., Lawler, N. G., Nitschke, P., Bong, S.-H., MORRISON, D. L., Begum, S., et al. (2020) · Journal of Proteome Research · doi:10.1021/acs.jproteome.0c00519 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
PD-1 pathway regulates ILC2 metabolism and PD-1 agonist treatment ameliorates airway hyperreactivity
Helou, D. G., Shafiei-Jahani, P., Lo, R., Howard, E. D., Hurrell, B. P., Galle-Treger, L., Painter, J. D., Lewis, G. M., Soroosh, P., Sharpe, A. H., et al. (2020) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17813-1 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: nutritional considerations for single-stage ultra-marathon training and racing
Tiller, N. B., Roberts, J. D., Beasley, L., Chapman, S., Pinto, J. M., Smith, L., Wiffin, M., Russell, M., Sparks, S. A., Duckworth, L., et al. (2019) · Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition · doi:10.1186/s12970-019-0312-9 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
“In catabolic and hypercatabolic situations, L-glutamine can be essential to help maintain normal metabolic function and is, therefore, included in clinical nutritional supplementation protocols and recommended for immune-suppressed individuals [175].”
Background
Effects of Glucose Metabolism, Lipid Metabolism, and Glutamine Metabolism on Tumor Microenvironment and Clinical Implications
Zhu, L., Zhu, X., & Wu, Y. (2022) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom12040580 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Physical Activity and Nutritional Influence on Immune Function: An Important Strategy to Improve Immunity and Health Status
Shao, T., Verma, H. K., Pande, B., Costanzo, V., Ye, W., Cai, Y., & Bhaskar, L. V. (2021) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.751374 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Transcriptomic and metabolic responses of earthworms to contaminated soil with polypropylene and polyethylene microplastics at environmentally relevant concentrations
Chen, K., Tang, R., Luo, Y., Chen, Y., El‐Naggar, A., Du, J., Bu, A., Yan, Y., Lu, X., Cai, Y., et al. (2021) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.128176 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Cancer metabolism and carcinogenesis
Yang, J., Shay, C., Saba, N. F., & Teng, Y. (2024) · Experimental Hematology and Oncology · doi:10.1186/s40164-024-00482-x · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Nutrition in Sepsis: A Bench-to-Bedside Review.
De Waele, E., Malbrain, M. L. N. G., & Spapen, H. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12020395 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Fish-Based Bioactives as Potent Nutraceuticals: Exploring the Therapeutic Perspective of Sustainable Food from the Sea
Ashraf, S. A., Adnan, M., Patel, M., Siddiqui, A. J., Sachidanandan, M., Snoussi, M., & Hadi, S. (2020) · Marine Drugs · doi:10.3390/md18050265 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
The Molecular and Mechanistic Insights Based on Gut–Liver Axis: Nutritional Target for Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) Improvement
Ji, Y. S., Yin, Y., Sun, L., & Zhang, W. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms21093066 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
COVID-19, an opportunity to reevaluate the correlation between long-term effects of anthropogenic pollutants on viral epidemic/pandemic events and prevalence
Tsatsakis, A. M., Petrakis, D., Νikolouzakis, Τ. Κ., Docea, A. O., Călina, D. C., Vinceti, M., Γούμενου, Μ., Kostoff, R. N., Mamoulakis, C., Aschner, M., et al. (2020) · Food and Chemical Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.fct.2020.111418 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
A glutamine tug-of-war between cancer and immune cells: recent advances in unraveling the ongoing battle
Wang, B., Pei, J., Xu, S.-N., Liu, J., & Yu, J.-M. (2024) · Journal of experimental & clinical cancer research : CR · doi:10.1186/s13046-024-02994-0 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Emerging Evidence for the Widespread Role of Glutamatergic Dysfunction in Neuropsychiatric Diseases
McGrath, T., Baskerville, R., Rogero, M. M., & Castell, L. M. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14050917 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Update on the effects of energy metabolism in bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells differentiation
Ning, K., Liu, S., Yang, B., Wang, R., Man, G., Wang, D., & Xu, H. (2022) · Molecular Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.molmet.2022.101450 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
An Overview of the Molecular Mechanisms Contributing to Musculoskeletal Disorders in Chronic Liver Disease: Osteoporosis, Sarcopenia, and Osteoporotic Sarcopenia
Yang, Y. J., & Kim, D. J. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22052604 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Glutamine prevents acute kidney injury by modulating oxidative stress and apoptosis in tubular epithelial cells
Thomas, K., Zondler, L., Ludwig, N., Kardell, M., Lüneburg, C., Henke, K., Mersmann, S., Margraf, A., Spieker, T., Tekath, T., et al. (2022) · JCI Insight · doi:10.1172/jci.insight.163161 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Integrated analysis of plasma and single immune cells uncovers metabolic changes in individuals with COVID-19
Lee, J. W., Su, Y., Baloni, P., Chen, D., Pavlovitch-Bedzyk, A. J., Yuan, D., Duvvuri, V. R. S. K., Ng, R. H., Choi, J., Xie, J., et al. (2021) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/s41587-021-01020-4 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Cellular metabolomics of pulmonary fibrosis, from amino acids to lipids
Roque, W., & Romero, F. (2021) · American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00586.2020 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Whole or Defatted Sesame Seeds (Sesamum indicum L.)? The Effect of Cold Pressing on Oil and Cake Quality
Melo, D., Álvarez‐Ortí, M., Nunes, M. A., Costa, A. S. G., Machado, S., Alves, R. C., González, J. E. P., & Oliveira, M. B. P. P. (2021) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods10092108 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Crosstalk Between Skeletal Muscle and Immune System: Which Roles Do IL-6 and Glutamine Play?
Rogeri, P. S., Gasparini, S. O., Martins, G. L., Costa, L. K. F., Araujo, C. C., Lugaresi, R., Kopfler, M., & Lancha, A. H. (2020) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2020.582258 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Free Amino Acids in Human Milk: A Potential Role for Glutamine and Glutamate in the Protection Against Neonatal Allergies and Infections
van Sadelhoff, J. H. J., Wiertsema, S. P., Garssen, J., & Hogenkamp, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.01007 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Glutamine Is Required for M1-like Polarization of Macrophages in Response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection
Jiang, Q., Qiu, Y., Kurland, I. J., Drlica, K., Subbian, S., Tyagi, S., & Shi, L. (2022) · mBio · doi:10.1128/mbio.01274-22 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Review: The roles and functions of glutamine on intestinal health and performance of weaning pigs
Ji, F. J., Wang, L. X., Yang, H., Hu, A., & Yin, Y. (2019) · animal · doi:10.1017/s1751731119001800 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Glutamine dipeptide-supplemented parenteral nutrition improves the clinical outcomes of critically ill patients: A systematic evaluation of randomised controlled trials
Stehle, P., Ellger, B., Kojic, D., Feuersenger, A., Schneid, C., Stover, J., Scheiner, D., & Westphal, M. (2017) · Clinical Nutrition ESPEN · doi:10.1016/j.clnesp.2016.09.007 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Research progress in the role and mechanism of Leucine in regulating animal growth and development
Rehman, S. U., Ali, R., Zhang, H., Zafar, M. H., & Wang, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2023.1252089 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Mitochondrial VDAC1: A Potential Therapeutic Target of Inflammation-Related Diseases and Clinical Opportunities
Hu, H., Guo, L., Overholser, J. P., & Wang, X. (2022) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells11193174 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
The Regulatory Role of α-Ketoglutarate Metabolism in Macrophages
Liu, S., Yang, J., & Wu, Z.-F. (2021) · Mediators of Inflammation · doi:10.1155/2021/5577577 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Mitochondrial and metabolic alterations in cancer cells
Gregorio, J. D., Petricca, S., Iorio, R., Toniato, E., & Flati, V. (2022) · European Journal of Cell Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ejcb.2022.151225 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Immunomodulatory properties of mesenchymal stromal/stem cells: The link with metabolism
Li, H., Dai, H., & Li, J. (2022) · Journal of Advanced Research · doi:10.1016/j.jare.2022.05.012 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
LKB1 deficiency-induced metabolic reprogramming in tumorigenesis and non-neoplastic diseases
Zhang, Y., Meng, Q., Sun, Q., Xu, Z., Zhou, H., & Wang, Y. (2020) · Molecular Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.molmet.2020.101131 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Glutamine and cancer: metabolism, immune microenvironment, and therapeutic targets
Nan, D., Yao, W., Huang, L., Liu, R., Chen, X., Xia, W., Sheng, H., Zhang, H., Liang, X., & Lü, Y. (2025) · Cell Communication and Signaling · doi:10.1186/s12964-024-02018-6 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Glutamine Metabolism, Sensing and Signaling in Plants
Lee, K., Liao, H., & Hsieh, M. (2023) · Plant and Cell Physiology · doi:10.1093/pcp/pcad054 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Glutamine Synthetase as a Therapeutic Target for Cancer Treatment
Kim, G. W., Lee, D. H., Jeon, Y. H., Yoo, J. H., Kim, S. Y., Lee, S. W., Cho, H. Y., & Kwon, S. H. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22041701 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Emerging mechanisms and promising approaches in pancreatic cancer metabolism
Wu, H., Fu, M., Wu, M., Cao, Z., Zhang, Q., & Liu, Z. (2024) · Cell Death and Disease · doi:10.1038/s41419-024-06930-0 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Ovarian aging: energy metabolism of oocytes
Bao, S., Yin, T., & Liu, S. (2024) · Journal of Ovarian Research · doi:10.1186/s13048-024-01427-y · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Duck gut metagenome reveals the microbiome signatures linked to intestinal regional, temporal development, and rearing condition
Ma, L., Lyu, W., Zeng, T., Wang, W., Chen, Q., Zhao, J., Zhang, G., Lu, L., Yang, H., & Xiao, Y. (2024) · iMeta · doi:10.1002/imt2.198 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Seaweed Proteins: A Step towards Sustainability?
Pereira, L., Cotas, J., & Gonçalves, A. M. M. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16081123 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
The Emerging Role of Branched-Chain Amino Acids in Liver Diseases
Lo, E. K. K., Felicianna, Xu, J., Zhan, Q., Zeng, Z., & El-Nezami, H. S. (2022) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines10061444 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Supplements with purported effects on muscle mass and strength
Valenzuela, P. L., Morales, J. S., Emanuele, E., Pareja-Galeano, H., & Lucia, A. (2019) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-018-1882-z · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Involvement of heat shock proteins HSP70 in the mechanisms of endogenous neuroprotection: the prospect of using HSP70 modulators
Belenichev, I. F., Aliyeva, O. G., Popazova, O., & Bukhtiyarova, N. V. (2023) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2023.1131683 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Understanding the pathophysiological changes via untargeted metabolomics in COVID‐19 patients
Doğan, H. O., Şenol, O., Bolat, S., Yıldız, Ş. N., Büyüktuna, S. A., Sarıismailoğlu, R., Doğan, K., Hasbek, M., & Hekim, S. N. (2020) · Journal of Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/jmv.26716 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Targeting Glutamine Metabolism to Enhance Immunoprevention of EGFR‐Driven Lung Cancer
Huang, M., Xiong, D., Pan, J., Zhang, Q., Sei, S., Shoemaker, R. H., Lubet, R. A., Montuenga, L. M., Wang, Y., Slusher, B. S., et al. (2022) · Advanced Science · doi:10.1002/advs.202105885 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Amino acid metabolism and signalling pathways: potential targets in the control of infection and immunity
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Glutamine Metabolism and Immune Function, Supplementation and Clinical Translation.pdf
Cruzat, V. F. (2018) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.7264208
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Authors: Cruzat, V., Macedo Rogero, M., Noel Keane, K., Curi, R., & Newsholme, P.
Affiliations: School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Biosciences, Curtin University, Perth 6102, Australia
Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Public Health, University of São Paulo, Avenida Doutor Arnaldo 715, São Paulo 01246-904, Brazil
Universidade Cruzeiro do Sul (BR)
Curtin University (AU)
Corresponding author: Newsholme, Philip
ORCID: Cruzat, Vinicius
Macedo Rogero, Marcelo
Curi, Rui
Newsholme, Philip
Venue: Nutrients
Publisher: MDPI AG
Published: 2018-10-23
Volume: 10
Issue: 11
Pages: 1564
ISSN: 2072-6643 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.3390/nu10111564
PMC: PMC6266414
OpenAlex: W2897213700
Cited by: 1,261
References: 212
Citations by year: 2026: 155 · 2025: 244 · 2024: 204 · 2023: 203 · 2022: 180 · 2021: 145 · 2020: 94 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 2 · 2016: 1
FWCI: 8.66
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
dx.doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: Nutrients (publishedVersion, cc-by)
Preprints.org (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
eSpace (Curtin University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders: Curtin University of Technology
Topics: Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Clinical Nutrition and Gastroenterology
Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Biochemistry › Amino Acid Enzymes and Metabolism
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Animal Science and Zoology › Animal Nutrition and Physiology
Keywords: glutamine, glutamine metabolism, immune function, glutamine supplementation, catabolic state, hypercatabolism, lymphocyte proliferation, cytokine production, macrophage function, neutrophil function, critically ill patients, sepsis, trauma (physical injury), athletes, immunosuppression
MeSH terms: Enteral Nutrition, Glutamine, Humans, Parenteral Nutrition, Dietary Supplements

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