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Cited by 91Bullying, Victimization, and AggressionWorkplace Violence and BullyingHate Speech and Cyberbullying Detection

Traditional and cyber bullying and sexual harassment: A longitudinal assessment of risk and protective factors

Open access
Leemis, Ruth W., Espelage, Dorothy L., Basile, Kathleen C., Mercer Kollar, Laura M., Davis, Jordan P.·2019·Aggressive Behavior
DOI 10.1002/ab.21808PMC PMC6437684
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Abstract

Adolescents engage in bullying and sexual harassment perpetration both in-person and online. Yet, little is known about the overlap of traditional (in-person) and cyber bullying and sexual harassment perpetration. The present study assessed the co-occurrence of these forms of aggression in high school and identified middle school predictors based on participants' perceptions of factors across the social ecology. Racially diverse middle and high school students (n = 3549) were surveyed over four time points from Spring 2008 to Spring 2013. A latent class analysis was used to identify classes of individuals according to endorsement of traditional and cyber bullying and sexual harassment items in high school. Four classes were identified: (1) high all, consisting of traditional and cyber bullying and sexual harassment perpetration (n = 227); (2) traditional bullying perpetration (n = 604); (3) traditional and cyber bullying perpetration (n = 450); and (4) low all (n = 1,261). Students who reported high levels of anger, self-esteem, empathy, pornographic exposure, and traditional masculinity (individual level), lower levels of social support and parental monitoring (relational level), and higher levels of school belonging (community level) had increased odds of being in the high all class when compared to the other classes. Given the co-occurrence of traditional and cyber bullying and sexual harassment, prevention programming that addresses both forms of aggression across traditional and online contexts may be beneficial. This study also suggests the importance of comprehensive prevention efforts that incorporate approaches at the different ecological levels, such as teaching adolescents healthy emotional and interpersonal skills, and engaging parents in prevention.

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  • Sexual harassment includes sexual harms, while cyberbullying is often sexualized, and no distinction is made in measurement between non-sexualized and sexualized forms.

    “Furthermore, some behaviors are also shared between the two phenomena: sexual harassment includes sexual harms [24], while cyberbullying is often sexualized, and no distinction is made in the measurement between non-sexualized and sexualized forms [22,25].”

    From Cybervictimization and Online Sexual Harassment: Prevalence, Association, and Predictors (2024) · cites this paper as [22]

    The Materials and Methods > Measures section distinguishes cyberbullying from cyber sexual harassment, measuring them with separate four-item and three-item scales. This contradicts the attributed claim that measurement makes no distinction between non-sexualized and sexualized forms. The Discussion reports co-occurrence, but does not establish that cyberbullying is often sexualized. (LLM, conf=0.87)

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  • The findings of this study are consistent with previous studies that have reported a consistent co-occurrence between the two phenomena.

    “These findings are consistent with previous studies that have reported a consistent co-occurrence between the two phenomena [22,23].”

    From Cybervictimization and Online Sexual Harassment: Prevalence, Association, and Predictors (2024) · cites this paper as [22]

  • Prior studies have reported consistent co-occurrence between traditional/cyber bullying and sexual harassment, with 9% of middle and high school students involved in all traditional and cyber forms of bullying and sexual harassment, and 7% of Swedish adolescents victimized by all four forms.

    “A consistent co-occurrence has been reported by few studies: one study reported whether 9% of middle and high school students were involved in all the traditional and cyber forms of bullying and sexual harassment [22], and, coherently, 7% of Swedish adolescents were victimized by all four forms of victimization (traditional and online bullying and sexual harassment) [23].”

    From Cybervictimization and Online Sexual Harassment: Prevalence, Association, and Predictors (2024) · cites this paper as [22]

  • Online sexual harassment has a gender bias, with girls more likely to be victims than boys.

    “Women and the LGBTQ+ community are more likely to be victims of online sexual harassment, and online sexual harassment has a gender bias, so girls are more likely to be victims than boys [22].”

    From Cybervictimization and Online Sexual Harassment: Prevalence, Association, and Predictors (2024) · cites this paper as [22]

    The Introduction section on perpetration co-occurrence mentions online sexual-harassment victimization but gives no comparison between girls and boys. The Measures section assesses cyber sexual-harassment perpetration, not victimization. Searches for gender differences in online victimization and LGBTQ+ victimization found no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)

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  • Women and the LGBTQ+ community are more likely to be victims of online sexual harassment.

    “Women and the LGBTQ+ community are more likely to be victims of online sexual harassment, and online sexual harassment has a gender bias, so girls are more likely to be victims than boys [22].”

    From Cybervictimization and Online Sexual Harassment: Prevalence, Association, and Predictors (2024) · cites this paper as [22]

    The Methods section measures cyber sexual harassment perpetration, not who is victimized. The Introduction mentions online victimization but gives no comparison by gender or LGBTQ+ identity. Searches for girls versus boys, women, and LGBTQ+ victimization found no passage supporting the attributed claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)

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Cites

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2 of the 58 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Chaffin SM (2008). The new playground bullies of cyberspace: Online peer sexual harassment. Howard Law Journal, 51, 773– 818.
  2. Vaillancourt T, McDougall P, Hymel S, & Sunderani S (2010). Respect or fear? The relationship between power and bullying behavior In Jimerson SR, Swearer SM, & Espelage DL (Eds.), Handbook of bullying in schools: An international perspective. (pp. 211– 222).). New York, NY: Routledge.

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Authors
Leemis, R. W., Espelage, D. L., Basile, K. C., Mercer Kollar, L. M., & Davis, J. P.
Affiliations
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US)
  • University of Florida (US)
  • Division of Violence Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta Georgia
  • University of Southern California (US)
Corresponding author
Leemis, Ruth W.
ORCID
Venue
Aggressive Behavior
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2018-12-21
Volume
45
Issue
2
Pages
181-192
ISSN
  • 0096-140X (ISSN-L)
  • 1098-2337
DOI
10.1002/ab.21808
PMC
PMC6437684
OpenAlex
W2906353629
Cited by
85
References
58
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 4
FWCI
9.84
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations
  • Aggressive Behavior (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
  • National Center for Injury Prevention and Control (1U01/CE001677)
  • National Institute of Justice (2011‐ 90948‐IL‐IJ)
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (17IPA1706096)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Workplace Violence and Bullying
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Hate Speech and Cyberbullying Detection
Keywords
cyberbullying, traditional bullying, sexual harassment, bullying perpetration, adolescents, risk and protective factors, social ecology, anger, self-esteem, empathy, traditional masculinity, social support, parental supervision, school belonging, bullying prevention, junior high school students, high school students
MeSH terms
Cyberbullying, Adolescent, Aggression, Female, Humans, Male, Social Support, Students, Sexual Harassment, Crime Victims, Bullying, Protective Factors, Social Skills

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