Cognitive load theory, modality of presentation and the transient information effect
Abstract
The modality effect occurs when audio/visual instructions are superior to visual only instructions. The effect was explored in two experiments conducted within a cognitive load theory framework. In Experiment 1, two groups of primary school students ( N = 24) were presented with either audio/visual or visual only instructions on how to read a temperature graph. The group presented with visual text and a diagram rather than audio text and a diagram was superior, reversing most previous data on the modality effect. It was hypothesized that the reason for the reversal was that the transitory auditory text component was too long to be processed easily in working memory compared to more permanent written information. Experiment 2 ( N = 64) replicated the experiment with the variation of a reduced length of both auditory and visual text instructions. Results indicated a reinstatement of the modality effect with audio/visual instructions proving superior to visual only instructions. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Cognitive load effects found for transient information, such as the self-pacing effect, segmentation effect, and modality effect, are typically not found for non-transient or less transient information.
“Cognitive load effects that are found for transient information (e.g. self-pacing effect, segmentation effect, modality effect) are typically not found for non-transient or less transient information.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Leahy and Sweller (2011)
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Multimedia Learning in e-Courses
Clark, R. C. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139547369.040 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Benefits of Writing an Explanation During Pauses in Multimedia Lessons
Lawson, A. P., & Mayer, R. E. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-021-09594-w · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Guest Editorial: Managing cognitive load in technology-based learning environments
Kalyuga, S., & Liu, T. C. (2015) · Educational Technology & Society · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Principles for Managing Essential Processing in Multimedia Learning
Mayer, R. E., & Fiorella, L. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108894333.025 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Interactive distance education: a cognitive load perspective
Kalyuga, S. (2012) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-012-9060-4 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Therefore, lengthy and complex fragment of instructional text should be presented in written rather than spoken form (transient information effect; Leahy and Sweller 2011; Sweller et al. 2011).”
BackgroundBoundary Conditions and Constraints of the Modality Effect
Schüler, A., Scheiter, K., & Schmidt‐Weigand, F. (2011) · Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1024/1010-0652/a000046 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Yusuf, A., Noor, N. M., & Bello, S. (2023) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-12079-8 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“This finding was supported by the Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 1988; Sweller et al., 2011) which suggests that the transitory nature of animations may impose extraneous cognitive load due to the temporal limits of working memory.”
Hatsidimitris, G., & Kalyuga, S. (2012) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-012-9276-z · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Listening Ears or Reading Eyes: A Meta-Analysis of Reading and Listening Comprehension Comparisons
Clinton‐Lisell, V. (2021) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543211060871 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“…in which orally presented information may be more challenging to comprehend than written-presented information because the transient nature of orally presented information may mean that the information may not exist long enough for the student to adequately process it (Leahy & Sweller, 2011).”
BackgroundDiergarten, A. K., & Nieding, G. (2013) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2013.848871 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“This is also supported by research on the modality effect, which shows that a dual presentation (audio and visual) is superior to a visual presentation (Leahy & Sweller, 2011; Mousavi, Low, & Sweller, 1995; Segers, Verhoeven, & Hulstijn-Hendrikse, 2008).”
MethodKuldas, S., Satyen, L., Ismail, H. N., & Hashim, S. (2014) · Psychologica Belgica · doi:10.5334/pb.aw · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“…ones (onscreen text and diagrams or animations) for schema construction can be maintained, provided that the audio text is segmented into short lengths and accompanied by visually-presented instructional material, which are unintelligible without the text (Kalyuga, 2012; Leahy & Sweller, 2011).”
BackgroundAn Examination of Students' Use of Technology for Non-Academic Purposes in the College Classroom
Kornhauser, Z. G. C., Paul, A. L., & Siedlecki, K. L. (2016) · Journal of Teaching and Learning with Technology · doi:10.14434/jotlt.v5n1.13781 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“In order to acquire biologically secondary knowledge we utilize cognitive processes such as working memory, which is an information processing and storage unit that is limited both in capacity and in duration (Leahy & Sweller, 2011).”
MethodChen, C.-Y., & Yen, P.-R. (2019) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2019.1572627 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Armougum, A., Gaston‐Bellegarde, A., Marle, C. J.-L., & Piolino, P. (2020) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2020.103180 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Janakiraman, S., Watson, S. L., & Watson, W. R. (2021) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-020-00571-8 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Harms, B., Hoekstra, J. C., & Bijmolt, T. H. A. (2022) · Journal of Interactive Marketing · doi:10.1177/10949968221075834 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“An explanation for this effect can be found in cognitive load theory (Leahy and Sweller 2011), which proposes that presenting information in dual modalities (e.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe effects of verbally redundant information on student learning: An instance of reverse redundancy
Ari, F., Flores, R., Inan, F. A., Cheon, J., Crooks, S. M., Paniukov, D., & Kurucay, M. (2014) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2014.04.002 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Roelle, J., Müller, C., Roelle, D., & Berthold, K. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0124115 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“A major consequence of transient information is that it generally raises working memory load [47,48].”
BackgroundCognitive Load Theory in E-Learning
van Mierlo, C. M., Jarodzka, H., Kirschner, F., & Kirschner, P. A. (2012) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-0315-8.ch097 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Learning from animations and computer simulations: Modality and reverse modality effects
Liu, T., Lin, Y., Hsu, C., Hsu, C., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2020) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12996 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Studying the effect of redundancy in a virtual reality classroom
Liu, T., Lin, Y., Wang, T.-N., Yeh, S., & Kalyuga, S. (2021) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-021-09991-6 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Khacharem, A., Zoudji, B., & Kalyuga, S. (2015) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.03.004 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Bolkan, S. (2018) · Communication Education · doi:10.1080/03634523.2018.1517895 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Leahy and Sweller (2011) make a similar argument and state that the provision of simple aural information should prove superior to more lengthy presentations because the latter are difficult to keep in working memory while simultaneously processing visual material.”
BackgroundLearning from split-attention materials: effects of teaching physical and mental learning strategies
de Koning, B. B., Rop, G., & Paas, F. (2020) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101873 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Instructional Mode: A Better Predictor of Performance Than Student Preferred Learning Styles
Moussa‐Inaty, J., Atallah, F., & Causapin, M. (2019) · International Journal of Instruction · doi:10.29333/iji.2019.1232a · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Others such as, Kalyuga, Chandler and Sweller (1999), Brünken, Plass and Leutner (2004), and Leahy and Sweller (2011) also support the dual modality principle in their investigations.”
BackgroundSchneider, S., Krieglstein, F., Beege, M., & Rey, G. D. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13229 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
The Modality Effect of Cognitive Load Theory
Castro-Alonso, J. C., & Sweller, J. (2019) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-20135-7_7 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationThe effect of video playback speed on learning and mind-wandering in younger and older adults
Murphy, D. H., Hoover, K. M., & Castel, A. D. (2023) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2023.2198326 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
The Modality Principle in Multimedia Learning
Castro-Alonso, J. C., & Sweller, J. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108894333.026 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationKrieglstein, F., Schneider, S., Gröninger, J., Beege, M., Nebel, S., Wesenberg, L., Suren, M., & Rey, G. D. (2022) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104702 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
The reverse modality effect: Examining student learning from interactive computer‐based instruction
Inan, F. A., Crooks, S. M., Cheon, J., Ari, F., Flores, R., Kurucay, M., & Paniukov, D. (2013) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12129 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Expertise reversal effect: Cost of generating new schemas
Armougum, A., Gaston‐Bellegarde, A., Marle, C. J.-L., & Piolino, P. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106406 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Munir, M., Setiawan, W., Nugroho, E. P., Kusnendar, J., & Wibawa, A. P. (2018) · International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET) · doi:10.3991/ijet.v13i08.8291 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Preparing learners to self-explain video examples: Text or video introduction?
Hefter, M. H., & Berthold, K. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106404 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Partial Verbal Redundancy in Multimedia Presentations for Writing Strategy Instruction
Roscoe, R. D., Jacovina, M. E., Harry, D., Russell, D. G., & McNamara, D. S. (2015) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3149 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“…research demonstrates that the extent to which instructional materials require higher levels of selection, organization, and integration across one or more modalities can lead to increasing difficulty or cognitive load that hinders learning (Leahy, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003; Leahy & Sweller, 2011).”
BackgroundEngaging physics teacher-candidates in the production of science demonstration videos
Tembrevilla, G., & Milner‐Bolotin, M. (2019) · Physics Education · doi:10.1088/1361-6552/aaf95d · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“If there is a specific video clip that needs text description that goes with a visualisation, modality effect is more likely to produce an effect if texts are shortened or chunked into smaller units [22].”
BackgroundGiovanni Parodi, S., & Julio, C. (2016) · Revista signos · doi:10.4067/s0718-09342016000400008 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Wang, J., Dawson, K., Saunders, K. V., Ritzhaupt, A. D., Antonenko, P. “., Lombardino, L. J., Keil, A., Dogan, N., Luo, W., Cheng, L., et al. (2018) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/0162643418754530 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“To be more specific, Leahy and Sweller (2011) manipulated the length of text and tested the influence of transient information on the modality effect.”
BackgroundInfluentialA storyteller's guide to problem‐based learning for information systems management education
Hull, D. M., Lowry, P. B., Gaskin, J. E., & Mirkovski, K. (2019) · Information Systems Journal · doi:10.1111/isj.12234 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“But such use must resolve the transient information effect (Leahy & Sweller, 2011), which occurs where the animations present information in a transient form that is difficult to retrieve rapidly and as required.”
BackgroundPi, Z., Zhang, Y., Yu, Q., & Yang, J. (2023) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-023-00418-1 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“The cognitive theory of multimedia learning postulates that students’ cognitive resources are limited (Leahy & Sweller, 2011; Sweller et al., 2011), and the amount of cognitive processing required for learning at any one time cannot exceed one’s cognitive capacity (Mayer, 2005).”
BackgroundColorful Bouquets in Multimedia Research: A Closer Look at the Modality Effect
Schnotz, W. (2011) · Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1024/1010-0652/a000055 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Pachman, M., & Ke, F. (2011) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.08.011 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
The Potential of Embodied Cognition to Improve STEAM Instructional Dynamic Visualizations
Castro-Alonso, J. C., Ayres, P., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-02573-5_7 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Kastaun, M., Meier, M., Küchemann, S., & Kühn, J. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.703857 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“This can be attributed to the level of complexity of the text-based or auditory text (Leahy and Sweller, 2011; Lehmann and Seufert, 2020) and/or to the multimedia presentation mode of the verbal text in terms of simultaneous, dynamic visualizations (Moreno, 2010; Mayer, 2014) or due to the…”
BackgroundDual Modality Code Explanations for Novices
Morrison, B. B. (2017) · ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research (ICER) · doi:10.1145/3105726.3106191 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“However in [27] the modality effect occurred when the videos were longer (going from 605 seconds to 867 seconds) but with fewer words (668 words to 576 words).”
BackgroundMultimediales Lernen: Lehren und Lernen mit Texten und Bildern
Scheiter, K., Richter, J., & Renkl, A. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-54368-9_4 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
- Authors
- Leahy, W., & Sweller, J.
- Affiliations
- Macquarie University (AU)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Leahy, Wayne
- Venue
- Applied Cognitive Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2011-02-15
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 943-951
- ISSN
- 0888-4080 (ISSN-L)
- 1099-0720
- OpenAlex
- W2012460397
- Semantic Scholar
- 162dc4015b5596253ddaa325cd6de805a06e25b0
- Cited by
- 344
- References
- 55
- Citations by year
- 2026: 31 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 49 · 2020: 28 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 22 · 2014: 26 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 9
- FWCI
- 25.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Applied Cognitive Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Learning Styles and Cognitive Differences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- cognitive load theory, modality effects, audio-visual instruction, visual education, working memory, elementary school students
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