Soft Actuators for Small-Scale Robotics
Abstract
This review comprises a detailed survey of ongoing methodologies for soft actuators, highlighting approaches suitable for nanometer- to centimeter-scale robotic applications. Soft robots present a special design challenge in that their actuation and sensing mechanisms are often highly integrated with the robot body and overall functionality. When less than a centimeter, they belong to an even more special subcategory of robots or devices, in that they often lack on-board power, sensing, computation, and control. Soft, active materials are particularly well suited for this task, with a wide range of stimulants and a number of impressive examples, demonstrating large deformations, high motion complexities, and varied multifunctionality. Recent research includes both the development of new materials and composites, as well as novel implementations leveraging the unique properties of soft materials.
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One-way SMPs can be strained up to about 800% before failure.
“Efforts to improve one-way SMP properties have led to materials that may: (i) be strained up to about 800% before failure; (ii) have elastic-energy densities between 10 and 2000 MJ/m 3 for strains approaching 200%; (iii) exert stresses between 0.1 and 10 MPa; (iv) have response times greater than 10 s; (v) high shape fixity and recovery ratios [3].”
From Two-Way and Multiple-Way Shape Memory Polymers for Soft Robotics: An Overview (2020) · cites this paper as [3]
One-way SMPs can exert stresses between 0.1 and 10 MPa.
“Efforts to improve one-way SMP properties have led to materials that may: (i) be strained up to about 800% before failure; (ii) have elastic-energy densities between 10 and 2000 MJ/m 3 for strains approaching 200%; (iii) exert stresses between 0.1 and 10 MPa; (iv) have response times greater than 10 s; (v) high shape fixity and recovery ratios [3].”
From Two-Way and Multiple-Way Shape Memory Polymers for Soft Robotics: An Overview (2020) · cites this paper as [3]
Fillers such as CNTs, carbon black, polypyrrole, nickel powders, or additives such as plasticizer molecules have been used to increase thermal and electrical conductivity or functionalities, mechanical strength, and recovery stresses, and to tune shape memory behavior.
“Several fillers, such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon black, polypyrrole, and nickel powders, or additives, such as plasticizer molecules, have been used to increase thermal and electrical conductivity or functionalities, mechanical strength, and recovery stresses, and to tune shape memory behavior (see [3,160-162] and references therein).”
From Two-Way and Multiple-Way Shape Memory Polymers for Soft Robotics: An Overview (2020) · cites this paper as [3]
One-way SMPs can have high shape fixity and recovery ratios.
“Efforts to improve one-way SMP properties have led to materials that may: (i) be strained up to about 800% before failure; (ii) have elastic-energy densities between 10 and 2000 MJ/m 3 for strains approaching 200%; (iii) exert stresses between 0.1 and 10 MPa; (iv) have response times greater than 10 s; (v) high shape fixity and recovery ratios [3].”
From Two-Way and Multiple-Way Shape Memory Polymers for Soft Robotics: An Overview (2020) · cites this paper as [3]
One-way SMPs can have response times greater than 10 s.
“Efforts to improve one-way SMP properties have led to materials that may: (i) be strained up to about 800% before failure; (ii) have elastic-energy densities between 10 and 2000 MJ/m 3 for strains approaching 200%; (iii) exert stresses between 0.1 and 10 MPa; (iv) have response times greater than 10 s; (v) high shape fixity and recovery ratios [3].”
From Two-Way and Multiple-Way Shape Memory Polymers for Soft Robotics: An Overview (2020) · cites this paper as [3]
Thermo-responsive SMPs may exhibit high variations in elastic modulus over the operational temperature range, being softer above the transition temperature and harder below it.
“It is also important to highlight that thermo-responsive SMPs may exhibit high variations in the elastic modulus over the operational temperature range (being softer above the transition temperature and harder below the transition temperature) [3,33].”
From Two-Way and Multiple-Way Shape Memory Polymers for Soft Robotics: An Overview (2020) · cites this paper as [3]
One-way SMPs can have elastic-energy densities between 10 and 2000 MJ/m3 for strains approaching 200%.
“Efforts to improve one-way SMP properties have led to materials that may: (i) be strained up to about 800% before failure; (ii) have elastic-energy densities between 10 and 2000 MJ/m 3 for strains approaching 200%; (iii) exert stresses between 0.1 and 10 MPa; (iv) have response times greater than 10 s; (v) high shape fixity and recovery ratios [3].”
From Two-Way and Multiple-Way Shape Memory Polymers for Soft Robotics: An Overview (2020) · cites this paper as [3]
Thermally-induced SMPs may be directly triggered by heating with hot gas or water, but indirect heating has also been used.
“Finally, it is worth mentioning that thermally-induced SMPs may be directly triggered by heating with hot gas or water, but indirect heating has been also used (see [3,33,46] and references therein).”
From Two-Way and Multiple-Way Shape Memory Polymers for Soft Robotics: An Overview (2020) · cites this paper as [3]
Other types of SMPs that are not activated by temperature changes exist, such as light-induced or chemo-responsive SMPs.
“Obviously, other types of SMPs that are not activated by temperature changes exist (e.g., light-induced or chemo-responsive SMPs), but will be not discussed in the present manuscript (for details, see [3,33,46] and references therein).”
From Two-Way and Multiple-Way Shape Memory Polymers for Soft Robotics: An Overview (2020) · cites this paper as [3]
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“Finally, it is worth mentioning that thermally-induced SMPs may be directly triggered by heating with hot gas or water, but indirect heating has been also used (see [3,33,46] and references therein).”
BackgroundInfluentialHigh Force Density Textile Electrostatic Clutch
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Carrico, J. D., Tyler, T., & Leang, K. K. (2017) · International Journal of Smart and Nano Materials · doi:10.1080/19475411.2018.1438534 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Self-contained soft electrofluidic actuators
Tang, W., Lin, Y., Zhang, C., Liang, Y., Wang, J., Wang, W., Ji, C., Zhou, M., Yang, H., & Zou, J. (2021) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abf8080 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Ge, F., & Zhao, Y. (2017) · Chemical Science · doi:10.1039/c7sc01792h · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Programmable soft robotics based on nano-textured thermo-responsive actuators
Kang, D. J., An, S., Yarin, A. L., & Anand, S. (2019) · Nanoscale · doi:10.1039/c8nr08215d · Cited by 51 · see citing works
- Authors
- Hines, L., Petersen, K., Lum, G. Z., & Sitti, M.
- Affiliations
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems (DE)
- Cornell University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Sitti, Metin
- Venue
- Advanced Materials
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2016-12-29
- Volume
- 29
- Issue
- 13
- ISSN
- 0935-9648 (ISSN-L)
- 1521-4095
- OpenAlex
- W2564130887
- Cited by
- 1,337
- References
- 532
- Citations by year
- 2026: 88 · 2025: 124 · 2024: 138 · 2023: 178 · 2022: 170 · 2021: 188 · 2020: 168 · 2019: 141 · 2018: 111 · 2017: 30 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 6.74
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Advanced Materials (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Soft Robotics and Applications
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Advanced Materials and Mechanics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Dielectric materials and actuators
- Keywords
- soft actuators, soft robotics, small-scale robotics, active materials, stimuli-responsive materials, actuation mechanisms, soft composites
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