Why the cognitive ‘fountain of youth’ may be upstream: pathways to dementia risk and resilience through social connectedness
Open accessAbstract
Research suggests social connectedness may help older adults with dementia maintain cognitive functionality and quality of life. However, little is known about its specific social and biological mechanisms. This paper proposes two pathways through social bridging (i.e., cognitive enrichment through expansive social networks) and bonding (i.e., neuroendocrine benefits of integration in cohesive social networks). We provide preliminary evidence for these pathways using neuroimaging, cognitive, and egocentric social network data from the Social Networks and Alzheimer's Disease (SNAD) study (N = 280). We found that network size, density, and presence of weak ties (i.e., social bridging) moderated the association between brain atrophy and cognitive function, while marriage/cohabitation (i.e., social bonding) moderated the association between perceived stress and cognitive function. We argue that social connectedness may have downstream implications for multiple pathophysiological processes in cognitive aging, even negating existing structural damage to the brain, making it a strong candidate for clinical or policy intervention.
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- Findingown data
For older adults with broad, loosely connected networks, structural neurodegeneration and cognitive function show no detectable relationship.
“Remarkably, among older adults with expansive and loosely-connected social networks, we find no observable relationship between structural neurodegeneration and cognitive function, suggesting that social bridging confers cognitive reserve.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Network size, density, and minimum tie strength adequately capture social bridging.
- Rests on an assumption: Amygdalar atrophy approximates pathological processes in ADRD.
- Findingown data
Network size significantly moderated the relationship between amygdalar atrophy and standardized cognitive function.
“Additionally, network size (p<.01), density (p<.001), and minimum tie strength (p<.001) significantly moderated the association between amygdalar atrophy and standardized cognitive function (See Table A3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Network density significantly moderated the relationship between amygdalar atrophy and standardized cognitive function.
“Additionally, network size (p<.01), density (p<.001), and minimum tie strength (p<.001) significantly moderated the association between amygdalar atrophy and standardized cognitive function (See Table A3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
There was no direct significant relationship between stress and cognitive function.
“We did not identify a direct significant relationship between either marital status or stress and cognitive function.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
On average, cognitively normal older adults had significantly larger, less dense personal networks with weaker ties than those diagnosed with MCI or ADRD.
“Cognitively normal older adults had personal networks that were significantly larger, less densely connected, and contained weaker ties, on average, than those with a diagnosis of MCI or ADRD.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Network size, density, and minimum tie strength adequately capture social bridging.
- Findingown data
Older adults with normal cognition had larger personal networks on average than those diagnosed with MCI or ADRD.
“Cognitively normal older adults had personal networks that were larger (Mean=5.34, p<.001), less densely connected (Mean=1.65; p<.01), and contained weaker ties (Mean=6.52; p<.001), on average, than those with a diagnosis of MCI (Mean=4.58; Mean=1.93; Mean=7.98, respectively) or ADRD (Mean=3.47; Mean=2.03; Mean=8.20, respectively).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
There was no direct significant relationship between marital status and cognitive function.
“We did not identify a direct significant relationship between either marital status or stress and cognitive function.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Older adults with normal cognition had weaker ties on average than those with MCI or ADRD.
“Cognitively normal older adults had personal networks that were larger (Mean=5.34, p<.001), less densely connected (Mean=1.65; p<.01), and contained weaker ties (Mean=6.52; p<.001), on average, than those with a diagnosis of MCI (Mean=4.58; Mean=1.93; Mean=7.98, respectively) or ADRD (Mean=3.47; Mean=2.03; Mean=8.20, respectively).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Marital status and stress had a significant interaction on cognitive function.
“However, there was evidence of a significant interaction between these variables (p<.05).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Older adults with normal cognition had less densely connected personal networks on average than those with MCI or ADRD.
“Cognitively normal older adults had personal networks that were larger (Mean=5.34, p<.001), less densely connected (Mean=1.65; p<.01), and contained weaker ties (Mean=6.52; p<.001), on average, than those with a diagnosis of MCI (Mean=4.58; Mean=1.93; Mean=7.98, respectively) or ADRD (Mean=3.47; Mean=2.03; Mean=8.20, respectively).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Among married or cohabitating individuals, stress was not related to cognitive function.
“There was no relationship between stress and cognitive function among those who were married or cohabitating, but there was a strong association among those who were widowed, divorced, or never married.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
After adjusting for gender, education, age, marital status, and depression symptoms, older adults with larger, less dense networks containing weaker ties showed better global cognition.
“Results indicated that older adults with larger and less densely connected networks that contained weaker ties had better global cognitive function, controlling for gender, education, age, marital status, and depression symptoms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Network size, density, and minimum tie strength adequately capture social bridging.
- Findingown data
Network size was associated with standardized cognitive function after adjusting for controls.
“Results from linear regression models (See Appendix A, Table A3) indicated that network size (B=0.16; p<.05), density (B=−0.23; p<.01), and minimum tie strength (B=−0.21; p<.001) were associated with standardized cognitive function, adjusting for controls.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Network density was associated with standardized cognitive function after adjusting for controls.
“Results from linear regression models (See Appendix A, Table A3) indicated that network size (B=0.16; p<.05), density (B=−0.23; p<.01), and minimum tie strength (B=−0.21; p<.001) were associated with standardized cognitive function, adjusting for controls.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Social bonding analyses yielded preliminary moderation evidence consistent with stress buffering.
“Analyses examining social bonding pathways also provided preliminary evidence of moderation consistent with stress-buffering.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Marital status (currently married or cohabitating) adequately captures social bonding.
- Findingown data
Minimum tie strength was associated with standardized cognitive function after adjusting for controls.
“Results from linear regression models (See Appendix A, Table A3) indicated that network size (B=0.16; p<.05), density (B=−0.23; p<.01), and minimum tie strength (B=−0.21; p<.001) were associated with standardized cognitive function, adjusting for controls.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Minimum tie strength significantly moderated the relationship between amygdalar atrophy and standardized cognitive function.
“Additionally, network size (p<.01), density (p<.001), and minimum tie strength (p<.001) significantly moderated the association between amygdalar atrophy and standardized cognitive function (See Table A3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Among widowed, divorced, or never married individuals, stress had a strong association with cognitive function.
“There was no relationship between stress and cognitive function among those who were married or cohabitating, but there was a strong association among those who were widowed, divorced, or never married.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Weak-tie interactions probably offer greater cognitive enrichment than routine exchanges with close family and confidantes.
“These kinds of interactions are likely to be more cognitively enriching than familiar, repetitive, and comfortable exchanges with immediate family members and other close confidantes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Social bonding might indirectly protect brain health by softening stress's harmful effects.
“Social bonding may also affect brain health indirectly by buffering the negative impact of stress (See Fig. 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Long-term research focused on a limited group of disease processes has yielded few new effective drugs or major advances in preventing or treating ADRD.
“Decades of intensive research on a relatively narrow set of pathogenic processes occurring in the brain and body have produced few effective new drugs or other significant advances in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias (ADRD).1–3”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [1] Cummings J, Ritter A, Zhong K. Clinical trials for disease-modifying therapies in Alzheimer’s disease: a primer, lessons learned, and a blueprint for the future. Journal of Alzheimer’s disease. 2018; 64(s1): S3– S22. PMC6004914 29562511 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [2] Nehls M. Unified theory of Alzheimer’s disease (UTAD): implications for prevention and curative therapy. Journal of molecular psychiatry. 2016; 4(1): 3. 27429752 PMC4947325 source
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- cites [3] Weinstein JD. A new direction for Alzheimer’s research. Neural regeneration research. 2018; 13(2): 190. 29557358 PMC5879880 source
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- Premisecitation
Oxytocin, released during courtship, intimate touch, and other bonding interactions, has favorable downstream effects.
“Levels of oxytocin, produced during courtship, intimate touch, and other bonding interactions, have similar beneficial downstream effects41–44”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [41] Karelina K, Stuller KA, Jarrett B, Oxytocin mediates social neuroprotection after cerebral ischemia. Stroke. 2011; 42(12): 3606– 3611. 21960564 PMC3226880 source
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- cites [42] Onaka T, Takayanagi Y, Yoshida M. Roles of oxytocin neurones in the control of stress, energy metabolism, and social behaviour. Journal of neuroendocrinology. 2012; 24(4): 587– 598. 22353547 source
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- cites [43] Carter CS, Kenkel WM, MacLean EL, Is Oxytocin “Nature’s Medicine”? Pharmacological Reviews. 2020; 72(4): 829– 861. 32912963 PMC7495339 source
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- cites [44] Jankowski M, Broderick TL, Gutkowska J. The role of oxytocin in cardiovascular protection. Frontiers in psychology. 2020; 11. PMC7477297 32982875
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- Interpretationcitation
Neural networks could serve as a cognitive reserve mechanism tied to social bridging.
“suggesting that neural networks may be a mechanism of cognitive reserve linked to social bridging.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [34] Dziura SL, Thompson JC. Social-network complexity in humans is associated with the neural response to social information. Psychological science. 2014; 25(11): 2095– 2101. 25253279 source
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- cites [35] Bickart KC, Hollenbeck MC, Barrett LF, Dickerson BC. Intrinsic amygdala-cortical functional connectivity predicts social network size in humans. J Neurosci. 2012; 32(42): 14729– 14741. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1599-12.2012 23077058 PMC3569519 source
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- Premisecitation
As many as one-third of older adults who meet full neuropathological criteria for ADRD show no substantial cognitive impairment.
“Up to one-third of older adults meeting full neuropathological criteria for ADRD exhibit no significant cognitive impairment, suggesting that even relatively advanced neurodegeneration may be masked (or moderated) by compensatory processes, including social enrichment.29–31”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [29] Esiri MM, Chance SA. Cognitive reserve, cortical plasticity and resistance to Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s research & therapy. 2012; 4(2): 1– 8. PMC3334540 22380508 source
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- cites [30] Esiri MM, Matthews F, Brayne C, Pathological correlates of late-onset dementia in a multicentre, community-based population in England and Wales. Lancet. 2001; 357(9251). 11213093
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- cites [31] Whalley LJ, Deary IJ, Appleton CL, Starr JM. Cognitive reserve and the neurobiology of cognitive aging. Ageing research reviews. 2004; 3(4): 369– 382. 15541707 source
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- Interpretationcitation
Compensatory processes, including social enrichment, may mask or moderate even fairly advanced neurodegeneration.
“suggesting that even relatively advanced neurodegeneration may be masked (or moderated) by compensatory processes, including social enrichment.29–31”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [29] Esiri MM, Chance SA. Cognitive reserve, cortical plasticity and resistance to Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s research & therapy. 2012; 4(2): 1– 8. PMC3334540 22380508 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [30] Esiri MM, Matthews F, Brayne C, Pathological correlates of late-onset dementia in a multicentre, community-based population in England and Wales. Lancet. 2001; 357(9251). 11213093
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- cites [31] Whalley LJ, Deary IJ, Appleton CL, Starr JM. Cognitive reserve and the neurobiology of cognitive aging. Ageing research reviews. 2004; 3(4): 369– 382. 15541707 source
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- Premisecitation
People with greater social engagement, more friends, and diverse associates withstand the cognitive effects of neurodegeneration better than comparable peers.
“For example, individuals with higher levels of social engagement, more friends, and a diverse set of associates are more resilient than similar peers, on average, to the cognitive effects of neurodegeneration.32,33”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [32] Bennett DA, Schneider JA, Tang Y, Arnold SE, Wilson RS. The effect of social networks on the relation between Alzheimer’s disease pathology and level of cognitive function in old people: a longitudinal cohort study. The Lancet Neurology. 2006; 5(5): 406– 412. 16632311 source
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- cites [33] Sharifian N, Zaheed AB, Morris EP, Social network characteristics moderate associations between cortical thickness and cognitive functioning in older adults. Alzheimer’s & Dementia. Published online 2021. PMC8599522 34002926 source
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- Premisecitation
Social conditions upstream shape individuals' susceptibility to risk factors for early cognitive aging, including neuroendocrine and cardiovascular health.
“This is because upstream social factors determine people’s “risk for risk factors” of premature cognitive aging, such as neuroendocrine function and cardiovascular health.6,7”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [6] Uchino BN. Social support and health: a review of physiological processes potentially underlying links to disease outcomes. Journal of behavioral medicine. 2006; 29(4): 377– 387. 16758315 source
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- cites [7] Phelan JC, Link BG. Controlling disease and creating disparities: a fundamental cause perspective. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. 2005; 60(Special_Issue_2): S27– S33. 16251587 source
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- Premisecitation
Weak ties give people chances to encounter novel social inputs, such as varied ideas, information, activities, verbal and nonverbal cues, faces, and speech patterns.
“Social scientists have shown that access to “weak” ties such as these provides opportunities for exposure to novel social stimuli, including a diversity of ideas, information, activities, verbal and nonverbal social cues, faces, and speech patterns.16–18”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [16] Thoits PA. Mechanisms linking social ties and support to physical and mental health. Journal of health and social behavior. 2011; 52(2): 145– 161. 21673143 source
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- cites [17] Granovetter MS. The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology. 1973; 78(6): 1360– 1380. source
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- cites [18] Pan X, Chee KH. The power of weak ties in preserving cognitive function: a longitudinal study of older Chinese adults. Aging & mental health. 2020; 24(7): 1046– 1053. 30955345 source
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- Interpretationreasoning
Social bridging might influence cognitive decline trajectories indirectly by building cognitive reserve.
“Social bridging may also indirectly affect trajectories of cognitive decline through an accumulation of cognitive reserve (See Fig. 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Social bonding probably supports brain health via core neuroendocrine pathways influencing many brain and body functions.
“As seen in Figure 1, social bonding likely contributes to brain health through primary neuroendocrine pathways that affect numerous brain and bodily functions.6,38”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [6] Uchino BN. Social support and health: a review of physiological processes potentially underlying links to disease outcomes. Journal of behavioral medicine. 2006; 29(4): 377– 387. 16758315 source
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- cites [38] Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Gouin J-P, Hantsoo L. Close relationships, inflammation, and health. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 2010; 35(1): 33– 38. 19751761 PMC2891342 source
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- Premisecitation
Perceived support and loneliness have been linked to differences in basal cortisol, which affects immune, metabolic, and cardiovascular outcomes relevant to ADRD risk in older adults.
“For example, perceived social support and loneliness have been associated with variation in basal cortisol, which influences immune system, metabolic, and cardiovascular outcomes implicated in ADRD risk in older adults.39,40”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [39] Cacioppo JT, Cacioppo S. Social relationships and health: The toxic effects of perceived social isolation. Social and personality psychology compass. 2014; 8(2): 58– 72. 24839458 PMC4021390 source
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- cites [40] Doane LD, Adam EK. Loneliness and cortisol: Momentary, day-to-day, and trait associations. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2010; 35(3): 430– 441. 19744794 PMC2841363 source
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- Interpretationreasoning
Acting on the social environment can at once interrupt several downstream pathogenic cascades in the causal chain.
“Consequently, intervening at the level of the social environment can simultaneously disrupt multiple cascading pathogenic processes occurring downstream in a chain of causation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Cognitive decline symptoms may come before changes in social interaction.
“Symptoms of cognitive decline may precede changes in social interaction.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [62] Aartsen MJ, Smits CH, Van Tilburg T, Knipscheer KC, Deeg DJ. Activity in older adults: cause or consequence of cognitive functioning? A longitudinal study on everyday activities and cognitive performance in older adults. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. 2002; 57(2): P153– P162. 11867663 source
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- Interpretationreasoning
Measurement using summary indices often does not allow testing of alternative social or biological mechanism hypotheses.
“Consequently, measurement of this kind often does not permit testing of alternative hypotheses about social or biological mechanisms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [8] Fratiglioni L, Paillard-Borg S, Winblad B. An active and socially integrated lifestyle in late life might protect against dementia. The Lancet Neurology. 2004; 3(6): 343– 353. 15157849 source
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- cites [11] Kelly ME, Duff H, Kelly S, The impact of social activities, social networks, social support and social relationships on the cognitive functioning of healthy older adults: a systematic review. Systematic reviews. 2017; 6(1): 259. 29258596 PMC5735742 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants in ADRD studies are typically asked proxy questions that summarize complex social phenomena using a single measure or scale, such as 'How many friends do you have?'
- Interpretationown data
Social bridging provides cognitive reserve.
“suggesting that social bridging confers cognitive reserve.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Network size, density, and minimum tie strength adequately capture social bridging.
- Interpretationcitation
Under some conditions, social bridging and bonding might counteract existing brain and body damage, including neurodegeneration.
“First and foremost, our findings indicate that in some circumstances, social bridging and bonding may negate damage already done to the brain and body, including neurodegeneration.32,50”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [32] Bennett DA, Schneider JA, Tang Y, Arnold SE, Wilson RS. The effect of social networks on the relation between Alzheimer’s disease pathology and level of cognitive function in old people: a longitudinal cohort study. The Lancet Neurology. 2006; 5(5): 406– 412. 16632311 source
Not checked in the free run.
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Not checked in the free run.
- Rests on an assumption: Marital status (currently married or cohabitating) adequately captures social bonding.
- Rests on an assumption: Network size, density, and minimum tie strength adequately capture social bridging.
- Rests on an assumption: Amygdalar atrophy approximates pathological processes in ADRD.
- Interpretationreasoning
From a cognitive aging standpoint, an ideal network might combine a small, supportive core of bonding ties, such as a spouse or partner, with a large, diverse periphery of casual friends and acquaintances.
“The ideal network, from a cognitive aging perspective, might have a robust core-periphery structure – that is, a small and highly supportive set of core bonding ties, including a spouse or romantic partner, complemented by an extensive and diverse network of casual friends and acquaintances.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Proxy measures cannot distinguish whether greater social connectedness means more social support, engagement with diverse weak ties, more frequent interactions, or a combination.
“For example, proxy measures cannot distinguish whether more social connectedness corresponds to a higher quantity of social support, engagement with a diverse set of weak ties, more frequent interactions, or some combination of the above.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants in ADRD studies are typically asked proxy questions that summarize complex social phenomena using a single measure or scale, such as 'How many friends do you have?'
- Interpretationreasoning
Social connectedness affects downstream nearly all biological pathways involved in ADRD etiology.
“As an upstream social determinant, social connectedness is an outstanding candidate for basic and translational research because it has downstream implications for nearly every biological pathway in ADRD etiology.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Reverse causation does not rule out social causation.
“The presence of reverse causation does not negate the influence of social causation, but may reflect feedback loops between cognitive decline and network dynamics that represent critical points of intervention.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Embedding in strong, integrating relationships probably helps buffer stress-related inflammation in the brain.
“At the same time, being embedded in strong, integrating relationships is likely beneficial for buffering the inflammatory effects of stress on the brain.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Staying active in a wider, more varied network of friends and associates might be needed to build cognitive reserve.
“Remaining active in a broader and more diverse network of friends and associates may be necessary for building cognitive reserve.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Social network members' attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors shape adults' diet, physical activity, substance use, and sleep habits.
“the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of social network members shape the diet, physical activity, substance use, and sleep habits of adults”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 6 sources checked- cites [67] Reid AE, Cialdini RB, Aiken LS. Social norms and health behavior. In: Handbook of Behavioral Medicine. Springer; 2010: 263– 274. source
Not checked in the free run.
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- May combine two claims. 24
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 16
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe stress index was unrelated to cognitive function in married or cohabitating participants, but strongly related in widowed, divorced, or never-married participants.
“As depicted in Figure 4, there was no relationship between the stress index and cognitive function among those who were married or cohabitating, but there was a strong association among those who were widowed, divorced, or never married.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Marital status (currently married or cohabitating) adequately captures social bonding.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataFor married or cohabitating older adults, perceived stress is not linked to cognitive impairment, unlike their single, divorced, or widowed counterparts.
“Likewise, among older adults who are married or cohabitating – arguably the most important bonding relationship – we find no association between perceived stress and impairment in cognitive function, in contrast to their single, divorced, or widowed peers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Marital status (currently married or cohabitating) adequately captures social bonding.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataAmong participants with high social bridging, brain atrophy and cognitive function were not significantly associated, whereas the expected associations appeared in those with low social bridging.
“That is, tere was no significant association between brain atrophy and cognitive function among subjects with high social bridging, but the expected relationships were observed for those with low social bridging.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Network size, density, and minimum tie strength adequately capture social bridging.
- Rests on an assumption: Amygdalar atrophy approximates pathological processes in ADRD.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataMarital status did not differ significantly across diagnostic groups.
“There were no significant differences in marital status across diagnostic groups.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataNetwork size, density, and minimum tie strength each significantly moderated the link between amygdalar atrophy and standardized cognitive function.
“Additionally, network size, density, and minimum tie strength significantly moderated the association between amygdalar atrophy and standardized cognitive function, as depicted in Figure 3.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Network size, density, and minimum tie strength adequately capture social bridging.
- Rests on an assumption: Amygdalar atrophy approximates pathological processes in ADRD.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationCognitive enrichment from social bridging might directly influence brain health by activating gene expression and promoting functional connectivity and neuronal growth, including repair.
“The cognitive enrichment provided by social bridging may shape brain health directly, as shown in Fig. 1, by triggering gene expression and catalyzing functional connectivity and neuronal growth, including brain repair.19–22”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [19] Holtmaat A, Svoboda K. Experience-dependent structural synaptic plasticity in the mammalian brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2009; 10(9): 647– 658. 19693029 source
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- cites [20] Sale A, Berardi N, Maffei L. Enrich the environment to empower the brain. Trends in neurosciences. 2009; 32(4): 233– 239. 19268375 source
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- cites [21] Sallet J, Mars RB, Noonan MP, Social network size affects neural circuits in macaques. Science. 2011; 334(6056): 697– 700. doi: 10.1126/science.1210027 22053054 source
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- cites [22] Ainsworth M, Sallet J, Joly O, Viewing ambiguous social interactions increases functional connectivity between frontal and temporal nodes of the social brain. Journal of Neuroscience. Published online 2021. PMC8276745 34099508 source
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May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAn overemphasis on biological disease mechanisms has shifted attention and funding from upstream social conditions such as social connectedness, which influence older adults' illness and death more than proximal risk factors.
“Moreover, the disproportionate focus on biological pathogenesis has diverted empirical attention and resources away from upstream social environmental factors like social connectedness that have a larger effect on older adults’ morbidity and mortality than proximate risk factors, pound for pound.4,5”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [4] Holt-Lunstad J, Smith TB, Layton JB. Social relationships and mortality risk: a meta-analytic review. PLoS med. 2010; 7(7): e1000316. PMC2910600 20668659 source
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- cites [5] Holt-Lunstad J, Robles TF, Sbarra DA. Advancing social connection as a public health priority in the United States. American Psychologist. 2017; 72(6): 517. PMC5598785 28880099 source
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May combine two claims.
PremisecitationHow socially active and connected people are is linked to both the occurrence and progression of cognitive decline.
“While it has long been known that the incidence and progression of cognitive decline are associated with the extent to which individuals are socially active and connected to others,8–12”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 5 sources checked- cites [8] Fratiglioni L, Paillard-Borg S, Winblad B. An active and socially integrated lifestyle in late life might protect against dementia. The Lancet Neurology. 2004; 3(6): 343– 353. 15157849 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [9] Kuiper JS, Zuidersma M, Zuidema SU, Social relationships and cognitive decline: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal cohort studies. International journal of epidemiology. 2016; 45(4): 1169– 1206. 27272181
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- cites [10] Kuiper JS, Zuidersma M, Voshaar RCO, Social relationships and risk of dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal cohort studies. Ageing research reviews. 2015; 22: 39– 57. 25956016 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [11] Kelly ME, Duff H, Kelly S, The impact of social activities, social networks, social support and social relationships on the cognitive functioning of healthy older adults: a systematic review. Systematic reviews. 2017; 6(1): 259. 29258596 PMC5735742 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [12] Evans IE, Martyr A, Collins R, Brayne C, Clare L. Social isolation and cognitive function in later life: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Alzheimer’s disease. 2018;(Preprint): 1– 26. PMC6700717 30372678 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe precise social and biological pathways connecting social connectedness to cognitive decline remain unclear and are seldom directly examined.
“the specific underlying social and biological mechanisms are less clear and rarely explicitly tested.9,11”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [9] Kuiper JS, Zuidersma M, Zuidema SU, Social relationships and cognitive decline: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal cohort studies. International journal of epidemiology. 2016; 45(4): 1169– 1206. 27272181
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [11] Kelly ME, Duff H, Kelly S, The impact of social activities, social networks, social support and social relationships on the cognitive functioning of healthy older adults: a systematic review. Systematic reviews. 2017; 6(1): 259. 29258596 PMC5735742 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn humans, stress correlates with memory problems and quicker cognitive decline in early-stage ADRD.
“In humans, stress is associated with memory impairment and faster rates of cognitive decline among those with early stage ADRD.38,46,47”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [38] Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Gouin J-P, Hantsoo L. Close relationships, inflammation, and health. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 2010; 35(1): 33– 38. 19751761 PMC2891342 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [46] Scott SB, Graham-Engeland JE, Engeland CG, The effects of stress on cognitive aging, physiology and emotion (ESCAPE) project. BMC psychiatry. 2015; 15(1): 146. 26138700 PMC4490700 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [47] Magri F, Cravello L, Barilli L, Stress and dementia: the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Aging clinical and experimental research. 2006; 18(2): 167– 170. 16702789 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThose with strong social bonding rarely feel lonely or isolated and report purpose, mattering, and belonging, which support behavioral guidance, security, self-esteem, and mastery.
“People with high levels of social bonding seldom feel lonely or isolated, and express a sense of purpose in life, mattering, and belonging – perceptions which foster behavioral guidance and security, as well as self-esteem and a sense of control or mastery.16,37”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [16] Thoits PA. Mechanisms linking social ties and support to physical and mental health. Journal of health and social behavior. 2011; 52(2): 145– 161. 21673143 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [37] Cohen S. Social relationships and health. American psychologist. 2004; 59(8): 676. 15554821 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn older adults, more complex networks-marked by irregular contact with varied social roles, frequent friend interactions but not family ones, and lower density-correlate with healthier brain volume and connectivity and better cognition.
“These effects of social bridging on the brain are consistent with recent studies indicating that greater network complexity, measured as irregular contact with a diversity of social roles, frequent interactions with friends (but not family members), and less densely connected networks are associated with healthy brain volume and connectivity, and better cognitive functioning in older adults.23–28”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 6 sources checked- cites [23] Ellwardt L, Van Tilburg TG, Aartsen MJ. The mix matters: Complex personal networks relate to higher cognitive functioning in old age. Social science & medicine. 2015; 125: 107– 115. 24840784 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [24] Kanai R, Bahrami B, Roylance R, Rees G. Online social network size is reflected in human brain structure. Proc Biol Sci. 2012; 279(1732): 1327– 1334. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2011.1959 22012980 PMC3282379 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [25] Noonan MP, Mars RB, Sallet J, Dunbar RIM, Fellows LK. The structural and functional brain networks that support human social networks. Behav Brain Res. 2018; 355: 12– 23. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.02.019 29471028 PMC6152579 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [26] Sharifian N, Kraal AZ, Zaheed AB, Sol K, Zahodne LB. Longitudinal Associations Between Contact Frequency with Friends and with Family, Activity Engagement, and Cognitive Functioning. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society. Published online undefined/ed: 1– 10. doi: 10.1017/S1355617720000259 PMC7483134 32200766
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [27] Sommerlad A, Sabia S, Singh-Manoux A, Lewis G, Livingston G. Association of social contact with dementia and cognition: 28-year follow-up of the Whitehall II cohort study. PLoS medicine. 2019; 16(8). PMC6677303 31374073 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [28] Sharifian N, Kraal AZ, Zaheed AB, Sol K, Zahodne LB. The longitudinal association between social network composition and episodic memory in older adulthood: the importance of contact frequency with friends. Aging & Mental Health. 2020; 24(11): 1789– 1795. 33076685 PMC8061708 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationBonding relationships are close, trusting, cooperative, and tied to meaningful roles such as spouse, partner, or parent.
“Bonding ties are intimate, trusting, cooperative, and associated with meaningful social roles like spouse/partner or parent.37”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [37] Cohen S. Social relationships and health. American psychologist. 2004; 59(8): 676. 15554821 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationLarger and more complex social networks correlate with amygdala functional connectivity to other brain areas and with neural responses to social information.
“Likewise, social network size and complexity are associated with functional connectivity between the amygdala and other brain regions and with neural response to social information,34,35,35”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [34] Dziura SL, Thompson JC. Social-network complexity in humans is associated with the neural response to social information. Psychological science. 2014; 25(11): 2095– 2101. 25253279 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [35] Bickart KC, Hollenbeck MC, Barrett LF, Dickerson BC. Intrinsic amygdala-cortical functional connectivity predicts social network size in humans. J Neurosci. 2012; 32(42): 14729– 14741. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1599-12.2012 23077058 PMC3569519 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAcute and chronic stress cause excessive stress hormone release in the HPA axis and harm brain health.
“Experiences of acute and chronic stress lead to hypersecretion of stress hormones in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, and have adverse consequences for brain health.45,46”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [45] Pearlin LI, Schieman S, Fazio EM, Meersman SC. Stress, health, and the life course: Some conceptual perspectives. Journal of health and social behavior. 2005; 46(2): 205– 219. 16028458 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [46] Scott SB, Graham-Engeland JE, Engeland CG, The effects of stress on cognitive aging, physiology and emotion (ESCAPE) project. BMC psychiatry. 2015; 15(1): 146. 26138700 PMC4490700 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationSocial network ties can themselves be sources of stress, such as losses or exits from relationships and social roles, or dysfunction and strain in ongoing relationships.
“social network ties can themselves be sources of stress, including negative life events involving losses or exits from relationships and social roles (e.g., widowhood), or dysfunction and strain in ongoing relationships (e.g., caregiver burden).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [45] Pearlin LI, Schieman S, Fazio EM, Meersman SC. Stress, health, and the life course: Some conceptual perspectives. Journal of health and social behavior. 2005; 46(2): 205– 219. 16028458 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [65] Adelman RD, Tmanova LL, Delgado D, Dion S, Lachs MS. Caregiver burden: a clinical review. Jama. 2014; 311(10): 1052– 1060. 24618967 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningDifferent social ties and engagement forms do not operate through identical mechanisms or produce equal results.
“That is, not all social ties or forms of social engagement work via the same mechanisms or have equal outcomes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationSpillover stress, resulting from close proximity to others experiencing negative events or chronic strain, is common.
“Spillover stress, a condition that results from close social or emotional proximity to others experiencing a negative life event or chronic strain, is also common.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [66] Bakker AB, Demerouti E. The spillover-crossover model. New frontiers in work and family research. Published online 2013: 54– 70.
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationNeurologists have contended that effective ADRD interventions must address several pathophysiological processes at once.
“Neurologists have argued that any successful intervention for ADRD must target multiple pathophysiological processes simultaneously.2”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [2] Nehls M. Unified theory of Alzheimer’s disease (UTAD): implications for prevention and curative therapy. Journal of molecular psychiatry. 2016; 4(1): 3. 27429752 PMC4947325 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenThe personal social network methods used here are inefficient to administer and can be cognitively burdensome.
“Another limitation of the personal social network methods used here is that they are inefficient to administer and can be cognitively burdensome, raising the possibility that findings are attributable to people with MCI or ADRD forgetting to name more peripheral members of their network.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningSubtle changes in social connectedness may signal prodromal decline in social cognitive abilities and MCI.
“Moreover, subtle changes in social connectedness may be a prodromal indicator of declining social cognitive abilities and MCI, making the reverse causation pathway a valuable subject for future study in its own right.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataAn exploratory factor analysis showed the stress index items loaded together, and the scale had a Cronbach's alpha of 0.76.
“These items factored together in an exploratory factor analysis, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.76 for the scale (See Table A5).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductreasoningThe personal network approach is not well suited for clinical settings or for older adults with advanced dementia, limiting its utility in some contexts.
“Nonetheless, the personal network approach is ill-suited for clinical settings and for older adults with advanced dementia, limiting its utility in some contexts.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe Montreal Cognitive Assessment is a short screening instrument for global cognitive function.
“The key dependent variable was the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), a brief screening tool that assesses global cognitive function.59”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [59] Nasreddine ZS, Phillips NA, Bédirian V, The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: a brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 2005; 53(4): 695– 699. 15817019 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataOur research comparing older adults' and study partners' network accounts supports the validity of the personal network approach and lessens concerns about forgetting.
“Our research comparing network accounts provided by older adults and their study partners supports the validity of the personal network approach and reduces concerns about forgetting.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [63] Roth AR, Peng S, Coleman ME, Finley E, Perry BL. Network recall among older adults with cognitive impairments. Social Networks. 2021; 64: 99– 108. 32952277 PMC7500575 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationSocial bonding may buffer stress's biological brain effects by lessening negative stress appraisal, encouraging active coping, and reducing HPA stress responses.
“Research provides evidence that social bonding can moderate these biological effects of stress on the brain by reducing negative appraisal of stressors, promoting active and effective coping, and downregulating the HPA response to stress.16,48–51”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 5 sources checked- cites [16] Thoits PA. Mechanisms linking social ties and support to physical and mental health. Journal of health and social behavior. 2011; 52(2): 145– 161. 21673143 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [48] Heinrichs M, Baumgartner T, Kirschbaum C, Ehlert U. Social support and oxytocin interact to suppress cortisol and subjective responses to psychosocial stress. Biological psychiatry. 2003; 54(12): 1389– 1398. 14675803 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [49] Smith AS, Wang Z. Hypothalamic oxytocin mediates social buffering of the stress response. Biological psychiatry. 2014; 76(4): 281– 288. 24183103 PMC3969451 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [50] Lee S-Y, Park S-H, Chung C, Kim JJ, Choi S-Y, Han J-S. Oxytocin protects hippocampal memory and plasticity from uncontrollable stress. Scientific reports. 2015; 5(1): 1– 9. PMC4685249 26688325 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [51] Smith AS, Wang Z. Salubrious effects of oxytocin on social stress-induced deficits. Hormones and Behavior. 2012; 61(3): 320– 330. 22178036 PMC3350103 source
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataBecause data collection continues and too few repeated observations existed for longitudinal analysis, the analyses used baseline data only.
“We limited analyses to the baseline sample because data collection is ongoing and there were insufficient observations over time to conduct longitudinal analysis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningReverse causation may reflect feedback loops between cognitive decline and network dynamics that are critical intervention points.
“The presence of reverse causation does not negate the influence of social causation, but may reflect feedback loops between cognitive decline and network dynamics that represent critical points of intervention.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenThe cross-sectional design of these preliminary data limits this analysis.
“The cross-sectional nature of these preliminary data is a limitation of this analysis.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThe study recruited three groups from the IADC cohort and achieved an 89% response rate.
“Three groups of subjects from the IADC cohort were recruited (89% response rate): 1) cognitively normal (CN) older adults, 2) mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and 3) early-stage AD.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenDiagnostic classifications were assigned by a consensus panel.
“Subjects with advanced AD (MoCA<10) or other types of dementia were excluded (diagnoses made by consensus panel).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationOlder adults' social lives are multiplex and heterogeneous and are not well captured by summary indices.
“However, the social lives of older adults are multiplex and heterogeneous, and not suitably captured by summary indices.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [64] Fiori KL, Smith J, Antonucci TC. Social network types among older adults: A multidimensional approach. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. 2007; 62(6): P322– P330. 18079416 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationDiet, physical activity, substance use, and sleep habits are associated with ADRD risk and resilience through downstream pathophysiological mechanisms.
“all of which are associated with ADRD risk and resilience through downstream pathophysiological mechanisms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 6 sources checked- cites [67] Reid AE, Cialdini RB, Aiken LS. Social norms and health behavior. In: Handbook of Behavioral Medicine. Springer; 2010: 263– 274. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [68] Scarmeas N, Luchsinger JA, Schupf N, Physical activity, diet, and risk of Alzheimer disease. Jama. 2009; 302(6): 627– 637. 19671904 PMC2765045 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [69] Maesako M, Uemura K, Kubota M, Exercise is more effective than diet control in preventing high fat diet-induced β-amyloid deposition and memory deficit in amyloid precursor protein transgenic mice. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2012; 287(27): 23024– 23033. PMC3391129 22563077 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [70] Camiletti-Moirón D, Aparicio VA, Aranda P, Radák Z. Does exercise reduce brain oxidative stress? A systematic review. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports. 2013; 23(4): e202– e212. 23495801 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [71] Dias GP, Cavegn N, Nix A, The role of dietary polyphenols on adult hippocampal neurogenesis: molecular mechanisms and behavioural effects on depression and anxiety. Oxidative medicine and cellular longevity. 2012; 2012. PMC3395274 22829957 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [72] Smith KP, Christakis NA. Social networks and health. Annual Review of Sociology. 2008; 34(1): 405– 429. doi: 10.1146/annurev.soc.34.040507.134601 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningCognitive decline may cause a person's network to become smaller, more densely connected, kin-centered, and more supportive as caregiving needs increase and relationships become harder to maintain.
“Loss of cognitive function may cause a person’s network to become smaller, more densely-knit, kin-centered, and increasingly supportive as caregiving needs intensify and relationships are harder to maintain.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
This study is one of only a handful that use neuroimaging biomarkers to directly connect social connectedness to downstream biological processes.
“This constitutes one of only a handful of studies that leverage neuroimaging biomarkers to concretely link connectedness to downstream biological processes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
No similar published findings on social bonding moderation were found.
“We were unable to find similar published results, despite considerable evidence for its plausibility, as described above.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Marital status (currently married or cohabitating) adequately captures social bonding.
“To operationalize social bonding, we used marital status (i.e., currently married or cohabitating as married).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Network size, density, and minimum tie strength adequately capture social bridging.
“Social bridging was operationalized using high degree, low density, and low minimum tie strength.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Amygdalar atrophy approximates pathological processes in ADRD.
“we also modeled the effects of amygdalar atrophy and perceived stress to approximate pathological processes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Participants in ADRD studies are typically asked proxy questions that summarize complex social phenomena using a single measure or scale, such as 'How many friends do you have?'
“participants in studies of ADRD are typically asked proxy questions that summarize complex social phenomena using a single measure or scale, such as “How many friends do you have?””
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Socially stimulating environments promote neuroprotective mechanisms.
“Socially stimulating environments promote neuroprotective mechanisms,4”
From Associations between social connections and cognition: a global collaborative individual participant data meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [4]
In Narrative, Mechanism 1 (page unavailable), the paper proposes that cognitive enrichment from social connections may foster functional connectivity, neuronal growth, and brain repair. This supports the proposed neuroprotective pathway, but the claim’s unqualified “promote” states as established a causal effect that the paper presents as a possibility. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredStrong social ties promote cognitive health via cognitive stimulation and affect the function of the neuroendocrine system and activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis via psychosocial processes (eg, stress buffering).
“Strong social ties promote cognitive health via cognitive stimulation and affect the function of the neuroendocrine system and activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis via psychosocial processes (eg, stress buffering).4”
From Associations between social connections and cognition: a global collaborative individual participant data meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [4]
Mechanism 2 describes close bonding ties as potentially benefiting brain health through neuroendocrine pathways and buffering stress by downregulating the HPA response. But Mechanism 1 attributes cognitive enrichment chiefly to diverse, weaker ties, describing those interactions as more cognitively enriching than exchanges with close confidantes. The claim conflates these distinct pathways and states the proposed effects more definitively than the paper does. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredBridging and bonding pathways have been proposed to lead from social connections to cognitive health.
“Bridging (ie, loose social ties providing cognitive stimulation) and bonding (ie, close social ties buffering stress and influencing function of the neuroendocrine system and the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis) pathways have been proposed to lead from social connections to cognitive health.4”
From Associations between social connections and cognition: a global collaborative individual participant data meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [4]
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Social Norms and Health Behavior
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The Role of Oxytocin in Cardiovascular Protection
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Cognitive reserve, cortical plasticity and resistance to Alzheimer's disease
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“Three groups of subjects from the IADRC cohort were recruited (89% response rate): (1) cognitively normal (CN) older adults, (2) MCI, and (3) early-stage Alzheimer’s disease (AD).”
BackgroundMethodSocial-Network Complexity in Humans Is Associated With the Neural Response to Social Information
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A new direction for Alzheimer's research
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“Three groups of subjects from the IADRC cohort were recruited (89% response rate): (1) cognitively normal (CN) older adults, (2) MCI, and (3) early-stage Alzheimer’s disease (AD).”
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Sorted by citations
Piolatto, M., Bianchi, F., Rota, M., Marengoni, A., Akbaritabar, A., & Squazzoni, F. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-12567-5 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Samtani, S., Mahalingam, G., Lam, B. C. P., Lipnicki, D. M., Lima-Costa, M. F., Blay, S. L., Castro-Costa, E., Shifu, X., Guerchet, M., Preux, P.-M., et al. (2022) · The Lancet Healthy Longevity · doi:10.1016/s2666-7568(22)00199-4 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
“4 Being in a relationship or married, living with others, and frequent social interactions might provide opportunities for cognitive stimulation and reduce cognitive decline via the stress buffering pathway.”
Association of early-, middle-, and late-life depression with incident dementia in a Danish cohort
Elser, H., Horváth-Puhó, E., Gradus, J. L., Smith, M. L., Lash, T. L., Glymour, M. M., Sørensen, H. T., & Henderson, V. W. (2023) · JAMA Neurology · doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2023.2309 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
State of the science on brain insulin resistance and cognitive decline due to Alzheimer's disease
Rhea, E. M., Leclerc, M., Yassine, H. N., Capuano, A. W., Tong, H., Petyuk, V. A., Macauley, S. L., Fioramonti, X., Carmichael, O., Calon, F., et al. (2023) · Aging and disease · doi:10.14336/ad.2023.0814 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“…still waiting to be elucidated, emerging studies show that both genetic factors (e.g., a resilience gene along the bile acid metabolism pathway) and non-genetic factors (e.g., physical and cognitive activities and social connectedness, among others) may contribute to cognitive resilience [333-338].”
BackgroundSocial health, social reserve and dementia
Sachdev, P. S. (2021) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/yco.0000000000000779 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Mahalingam, G., Samtani, S., Lam, B. C. P., Lipnicki, D. M., Lima‐Costa, M. F., Blay, S. L., Castro‐Costa, E., Shifu, X., Guerchet, M., Preux, P., et al. (2023) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.13072 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“10 The bonding pathway involves social connection structure, function, and quality markers such as relationship status, social support, and loneliness.”
InfluentialPerry, B. L., Roth, A. R., Peng, S., Risacher, S. L., Saykin, A. J., & Apostolova, L. G. (2021) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbab192 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Self-citationA Framework for Assessing the Effects of Climate Change on Dementia Risk and Burden
Zuelsdorff, M. L., & Limaye, V. S. (2023) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnad082 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“They build brain resilience, they buffer negative health effects resulting from psychosocial and physical stressors, and they facilitate brain-healthy behaviors such as physical activity and management of the chronic diseases described previously (Lindsay Smith et al., 2017; Perry et al., 2022).”
BackgroundBloomberg, M., Terrera, G. M., Brocklebank, L. A., & Steptoe, A. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-49262-5 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“Finally, social activity and engagement may promote neuroprotection by moderating associations between brain atrophy and cognitive function; social bonding might also moderate the association between perceived stress and cognitive function 33 .”
Coleman, M. E., Roessler, M., Peng, S., Roth, A. R., Risacher, S. L., Saykin, A. J., Apostolova, L. G., & Perry, B. L. (2023) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.13035 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Self-citationStafford, J., Dekhtyar, S., Welmer, A., Vetrano, D. L., Grande, G., Laukka, E. J., Marseglia, A., Moulton, V., Mansfield, R., Liu, Y., et al. (2024) · The Lancet Healthy Longevity · doi:10.1016/s2666-7568(24)00046-1 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Associations between exposures, mediators, and outcomes were similar when survey design weights were applied (appendix 2 pp 14–16).”
InfluentialYu, K., & Ng, T. K. S. (2022) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glac213 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Lamar, M., James, B. D., Glover, C. M., Capuano, A. W., McSorley, V. E., Wilson, R. S., & Barnes, L. L. (2022) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2022.05.005 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Living Alone During Old Age and the Risk of Dementia: Assessing the Cumulative Risk of Living Alone
Shaw, B. A., Yang, T., & Kim, S. (2022) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbac156 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Peng, S., Roth, A. R., & Perry, B. L. (2021) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2021.2001368 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“…reserve hypothesis (Stern, 2002), which argues that individual variations in cognitively stimulating environments (e.g., bridging social capital) across the life course can build up cognitive reserve and provide different degrees of protection against cognitive decline (Perry et al., 2021).”
BackgroundSelf-citationHuang, C., Yan, Y., Tam, W., Sun, W., Ye, Y., Wang, N., Shi, Y., Zhu, Z., Chen, D., Chen, L., et al. (2025) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-025-04085-z · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“The 2020 Lancet Commission reported that addressing 12 modifiable risk factors could delay or prevent 40% of dementia cases, with social isolation being a key factor, accounting for 4% of preventable cases [5, 6].”
Posis, A. I. B., Shadyab, A. H., Parada, H., Alcaraz, J. E., Kremen, W. S., & McEvoy, L. K. (2024) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-230809 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
How an Intergenerational Book Club Can Prevent Cognitive Decline in Older Adults: A Pilot Study
Plummer, J., Nguyen, K., Everly, J., Kiesow, A., Leith, K. H., Aging, C. O. G. S. I., & Neils-Strunjas, J. (2023) · Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine · doi:10.1177/23337214221150061 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Meng, X., Su, J.-P., Gao, T., Ma, D., Zhao, Y., Fang, S., Zhi, S., Li, H., & Sun, J. (2024) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2024.104701 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
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How well do social frailty indices predict incident dementia in older adults?
Matison, A. P., Samtani, S., Brodaty, H., Sachdev, P. S., & Reppermund, S. (2025) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbaf148 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Role-Accumulation and Mental Health across the Life Course
Mize, T. D., & Kincaid, R. (2025) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/00031224241313394 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“…more diverse networks—the types that typically accompany voluntary roles—are protective for older adults’ mental health and help keep people happier and healthier into their later years (Peng et al. 2022; Perry, McConnell, et al. 2022; Perry, Roth, et al. 2022; see also Cornwell and Laumann 2015).”
Zegarra-Valdivia, J. A., Arana‐Nombera, H. A., Perez‐Fernandez, L. A., Casimiro‐Arana, M. D. R., Gallegos‐Manayay, V. N., Oliva‐Piscoya, M. D. R., Alamo‐Medina, R. E., Abanto‐Saldaña, E. S., Ordinola, M. C. C., Paredes-Manrique, C., et al. (2025) · Current Issues in Molecular Biology · doi:10.3390/cimb47040233 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Chen, L.-M., Inoue, M., & Buckley, N. (2024) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1411217 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Research suggests that community engagement and social involvement help build cognitive reserve, potentially mitigating dementia-related brain changes (51, 52).”
Liu, S. H., Weber, E. S., Manz, K. E., McCarthy, K. J., Chen, Y., Schüffler, P. J., Zhu, C. W., & Tracy, M. (2024) · Genes · doi:10.3390/genes15111457 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Association between social networking and dementia: A systematic review of observational studies
Arshad, F., Boopalan, D., Arora, S., Rosen, H. J., & Alladi, S. (2025) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2025.04.019 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Peng, S., & Perry, B. L. (2025) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/00221465251356611 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Interactions within these networks provide access to mental stimulation and resources that can help buffer against cognitive decline in older adulthood (Kuiper et al. 2016; Peng et al. 2022; Perry, McConnell, Coleman, et al. 2022).”
InfluentialSelf-citationJiang, Y., Wu, Y., Hu, Y., Li, S., Ren, L., Wang, J., Yu, M., Yang, R. Z., Liu, Z., Zhang, N., et al. (2024) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2024.118868 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Krendl, A. C., Hamilton, L. J., Apostolova, L. G., & Perry, B. L. (2025) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbae209 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationPiedra, L. M., & Iveniuk, J. (2025) · Innovation in Aging · doi:10.1093/geroni/igaf025 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Studies demonstrate that varied and extensive connections enhance cognitive health by protecting against social isolation linked to cognitive decline (20,21).”
Meaning in life and Parkinson’s disease in the UK Biobank
Sutin, A., Luchetti, M., Stephan, Y., & Terracciano, A. (2023) · Clinical Parkinsonism & Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.prdoa.2023.100231 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Individuals higher in meaning also tend to be more socially integrated [21], which may have neuro-protective effects [22].”
Chen, S., Zhang, Y., Wang, Y., Lawrence, W. R., Rhee, J., Guo, T., Chen, S., Wu, W., Wu, W., Li, Z., et al. (2023) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140397 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Jang, Y., Kawachi, I. I., & Lee, S. (2025) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/08982643251370411 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“The fi nding is in line with previous studies demonstrating the cognitive health bene fi ts of bridging connections in diverse populations (e.g., Cornwell, 2011; Peng et al., 2021; Perry et al., 2022), including older ethnic immigrants (e.g., Jang et al., 2022).”
InfluentialPollak, C., Blumen, H. M., Zhou, L., Wong, J., Jin, Y., Bhattiprolu, A., Anfang, S., & Ceïde, M. E. (2025) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/70518 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
High-Impact Participation? Social Activities, Activity Frequency, and Older Adult Cognition
Vogelsang, E. M., Moorman, S. M., & Zanotelli, Z. (2025) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/08982643251331808 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Indeed, social bridging — which re-sults from having many diverse (e.g., friends, community members) social interactions — may offer unique and more consistent cognitive bene fi ts when compared to other types of social connectedness (Perry et al., 2022).”
Cohen, M. L., Buren, K. V., Myers, M. J., Ellison, J. M., Martens, C. R., & Lanzi, A. M. (2025) · Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology · doi:10.1177/08919887251339591 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“50 Furthermore, social connection, accountability, and positive peer pressure may also be important strategies for engaging with and adhering to other health behaviors and brain resilience factors.”
Social Connections Over the Life Course: Appreciating Distinct Dimensions of Social Connections
Peng, S., Roth, A. R., & Perry, B. L. (2025) · Research on Aging · doi:10.1177/01640275251377777 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Given social interactions are important for a wide range of health outcomes, such as cognitive function, morbidity, and mortality (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015; House et al., 1988; Peng et al., 2022; Perry et al., 2021), a decrease in daily social contact among older adults is concerning.”
Self-citationDistinct social network structures and their cognitive and psychological correlates
Hamilton, L. J., Peng, S., Coleman, M. E., Apostolova, L. G., Krendl, A. C., & Perry, B. L. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-44571-9 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“This may explain the robust longitudinal relationship between changes in social bridging and cognitive decline uncovered here and identified cross-sectionally in some past work 19,22–26 .”
Self-citationSocial connection and cognitive health: A review of concepts, measures, and research priorities
DeAngelis, R. T., Burnside, L., Donnell, D. O., Hicken, M. T., Umberson, D., & Perry, B. L. (2026) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.71517 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“41,43,44 For instance, a study of older adults in Texas found that participants who reported frequent encounters with diverse social ties typically spent less time sedentary and engaged in a wider variety of activities like socializing and volunteering.”
Self-citationSocial isolation and social cognition: A cross-sectional analysis
Grothe, J., Pabst, A., Röhr, S., Riedel-Heller, S. G., & Luppa, M. (2024) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.1177/13872877241284222 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Bridging Social Capital Potential and Alzheimer’s Disease Mortality Rates
Roth, A. R., Railey, A. F., & Peng, S. (2025) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/23780231251327540 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Numerous studies show that contact between ethnoracial groups promotes cognitive skills such as empathy (Boisjoly et al. 2006), information processing (Sommers, Warp, and Mahoney 2008), and creativity (McLeod, Lobel, and Cox 1996), all of which are known to protect against AD.”
InfluentialSelf-citationDo subjective or objective cognitive measures better predict social network type among older adults?
Roth, A. R., Peng, S., Coleman, M. E., Apostolova, L. G., & Perry, B. L. (2022) · Biodemography and Social Biology · doi:10.1080/19485565.2022.2052711 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationCharif, M. H. E., Melhem, J. M., Asmar, K. E., Elbejjani, M., Gross, A. L., & Chaaya, M. (2026) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2026.102485 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Stokes, J. E., Latham-Mintus, K., Farmer, H. R., & Massihzadegan, S. (2026) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbag049 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Social connectedness is an established protective factor for cognitive declines (Paiva et al., 2023; Perry et al, 2022).”
Promoting Brain Health in the Context of Normal Aging and Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Tutorial
Cohen, M. L., Lanzi, A. M., Rothbart, A., Keatley, E. S., Seagly, K., Strong, K. A., Paul, D. R., & Sohlberg, M. M. (2026) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2026_ajslp-25-00494 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Mallick, A., & Santra, A. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-40128-2_12 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A Bipartisan Lifeline for Alzheimer’s: Relationships that are Good for the Heart
Khasawinah, S. (2022) · Public Policy & Aging Report · doi:10.1093/ppar/prac007 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Stafford, J., Dekhtyar, S., Welmer, A., Vetrano, D. L., Grande, G., Marseglia, A., Moulton, V., Mansfield, R., Liu, Y., Ning, K., et al. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.11.02.23297985
“35 Establishing mechanisms linking social health and cognition is crucial for identifying possible targets for interventions to mitigate against cognitive decline, which is a major priority for public health.”
BackgroundTurning Pages Together: The Power of Book Clubs for People Living with Dementia
Rollason, A., Powell, Z., & Cadet, T. J. (2024) · Australian Social Work · doi:10.1080/0312407x.2024.2430213
“cognitive deterioration in the older adult population (Perry et al., 2022).”
Teng, S., Xu, S., Liang, M., Li, J., Shen, D., Cheng, Y., & Tang, X. (2025) · BMC Nursing · doi:10.1186/s12912-025-03212-8
“Older adults with mild dementia may become alienated from their original social circles [29].”
Zhan, R., Mpofu, E., Yeatts, D. J., & Uanhoro, J. (2025) · doi:10.2196/preprints.79462
Neuroscience, Cognition, and Social Networks
Brashears, M. E., & Perry, B. L. (2025) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-95615-7_17
Self-citationCognitive function and the social environment: A multilevel approach
Roth, A. R., & Perry, B. L. (2025) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.118877
Self-citationSamtani, S., Casey, A., Thalamuthu, A., Lam, B. C. P., Catts, V. S., Trollor, J. N., Brodaty, H., & Sachdev, P. S. (2026) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.2025.10505
Predicting low premorbid cognitive ability with social determinants: A machine learning approach
Abdullah, L. B., Khandakar, I., Douglas, A., Nance, R., Zhou, Z., Hall, J. W., III, & O’Bryant, S. E. (2026) · Journal of Aging Research and Lifestyle · doi:10.1016/j.jarlif.2026.100062
“…stress and social support can impact cognitive aging outcomes, with chronic stress and lack of social support being associated with higher subjective memory concerns, lower executive functioning, and higher rates of biological markers of neurodegeneration across several communities [14 – 17].”
Branson, I., Turner, K., Turner, M., Laws, M., Dempsey, L., Laws, S. M., Stanley, M. J., Lo, J., & Cruickshank, T. M. (2026) · Brain Impairment · doi:10.1071/ib24089
Psychosocial hierarchies of modifiable risk for Alzheimer’s disease: A networks analysis
Brady, J. J. R., Bartlett, L., Roccati, E., Norris, K., Vickers, J. C., & Sinclair, D. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0333148
“A systems-informed framework that handles variable interdependence is needed to navigate these challenges [23].”
Social connectedness and cognitive outcomes in rural middle‐ to older‐age adults
Park, J. A., Besser, L. M., Tourelle, M., Williams, C., Cook, D. J., Mitsova, D., Magzamen, S., & Wiese, L. K. (2026) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.71401
Goldman, A. W., Cha, H., & Ashtiani, R. T. (2026) · Innovation in Aging · doi:10.1093/geroni/igag051
“…going out for enjoyment, and organized group activities may foster social interaction with less familiar and more diverse social ties, which can benefit cognitive function and memory through exposure to novel social and environmental stimuli and contribute to cognitive reserve (Perry et al., 2022).”
Santana, L. K., Peng, S., & Meng, H. (2026) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/08982643261447919
Self-citationAlzheimer's disease and related dementias (ADRD) after COVID‐19 infection: trends and disparities
Gupta, S., Simon, K. I., & Perry, B. L. (2026) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Behavior & Socioeconomics of Aging · doi:10.1002/bsa3.70084
Self-citationKUNDAKÇI, G. A., Arabacı, Z., Atila, D., & Aktaş, B. (2026) · Journal of Prevention · doi:10.1007/s10935-026-00929-3
Later life social interactions in community spaces
Fekete, M., Qu, T., Perry, B. L., Peng, S., & Roth, A. R. (2026) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/soag088
Self-citationPromoting Health Equity in Neuropsychology as a Cornerstone of Population Health
Tsoy, E., & Franzen, S. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-22457-6_4
Hicken, M. T., DeAngelis, R. T., Rigby, D., Burnside, L., Adar, S. D., Burgard, S. A., Davis, B. A., Donnelly, R., Finlay, J., Hajat, A., et al. (2026) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.71648
“25,69,78,80 Social networks encompass our family, friends, coworkers, neighbors, and anyone we interact with regularly.”
InfluentialSelf-citationHowell, V., Mitchell, U. A., & Shaw, B. A. (2026) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbag143
Dog ownership and healthy brain aging: a pilot study
Potter, K., Martini, D. N., Sands, C. J., Falck, R. S., & Nagarajan, R. (2026) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.21560
“Informal social interactions experienced by dog walkers may support social bridging , which occurs when people have frequent interactions with casual friends, neighbors, or other ‘weak ties’ ( Manchella et al., 2024 ; Perry et al., 2022 ).”
Zhang, Y., Wang, J., Zhang, T., & Liu, G. (2026) · PsyCh Journal · doi:10.1002/pchj.70119
Incident dementia risk by frailty status and living arrangements in older adults
McEwen, K., Samtani, S., Chen, R., Crawford, J. D., Sachdev, P. S., Brodaty, H., & Numbers, K. T. (2026) · The Journal of Frailty & Aging · doi:10.1016/j.tjfa.2026.100185
“Social bridging and social bonding hypotheses have been proposed as potential mechanisms driving the association between frailty and adverse health outcomes in older adults [16].”
Lin, S., Zhang, B., 余淑贤, Wang, C., Zheng, J., Cao, Z., Xu, H., & Fan, G. (2026) · The Breast Journal · doi:10.1155/tbj/8826025
“Social connection theory and the “stress-bufering model” propose that social support can improve health outcomes and QOL by bufering stress and enhancing self-efcacy [22–26].”
Bail, K. S., Wiseman, L., Chelberg, G., D'Cunha, N. M., Isbel, S. T., Brodaty, H., Morris, T., & Gibson, D. M. (2026) · Frontiers in Dementia · doi:10.3389/frdem.2026.1891190
“These approaches have traditionally been used for disease prevention rather than symptom amelioration (Perry et al., 2022).”
金, 孔. (2026) · Advances in Social Sciences · doi:10.12677/ass.2026.159768
- Authors
- Perry, B. L., McConnell, W. R., Coleman, M. E., Roth, A. R., Peng, S., & Apostolova, L. G.
- Affiliations
- Indiana University Bloomington (US)
- Florida Atlantic University (US)
- Indiana University Health (US)
- Corresponding author
- Perry, Brea L.
- Venue
- Alzheimer's & Dementia
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2021-09-05
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 934-941
- ISSN
- 1552-5260 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-5279
- PMC
- PMC8897512
- OpenAlex
- W3198098337
- Semantic Scholar
- 1a262c6f1c9638960740bcac5fcf512f12c641a7
- Cited by
- 77
- References
- 76
- Citations by year
- 2026: 29 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 3
- FWCI
- 5.38
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Alzheimer s & Dementia (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- IUScholarWorks (Indiana University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R01 AG057739, P30 AG010133)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Keywords
- social connectedness, dementia risk
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Aged, Alzheimer Disease, Brain, Cognition, Humans, Quality of Life, Social Networking
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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