How feedback, motor imagery, and reward influence brain self‐regulation using real‐time fMRI
Open accessAbstract
The learning process involved in achieving brain self‐regulation is presumed to be related to several factors, such as type of feedback, reward, mental imagery, duration of training, among others. Explicitly instructing participants to use mental imagery and monetary reward are common practices in real‐time fMRI (rtfMRI) neurofeedback (NF), under the assumption that they will enhance and accelerate the learning process. However, it is still not clear what the optimal strategy is for improving volitional control. We investigated the differential effect of feedback, explicit instructions and monetary reward while training healthy individuals to up‐regulate the blood‐oxygen‐level dependent (BOLD) signal in the supplementary motor area (SMA). Four groups were trained in a two‐day rtfMRI‐NF protocol: G F with NF only, G F,I with NF + explicit instructions (motor imagery), G F,R with NF + monetary reward, and G F,I,R with NF + explicit instructions (motor imagery) + monetary reward. Our results showed that G F increased significantly their BOLD self‐regulation from day‐1 to day‐2 and G F,R showed the highest BOLD signal amplitude in SMA during the training. The two groups who were instructed to use motor imagery did not show a significant learning effect over the 2 days. The additional factors, namely motor imagery and reward, tended to increase the intersubject variability in the SMA during the course of training. Whole brain univariate and functional connectivity analyses showed common as well as distinct patterns in the four groups, representing the varied influences of feedback, reward, and instructions on the brain.Hum Brain Mapp 37:3153–3171, 2016. ©2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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No explicit strategies or instructions were given because implicit strategies have been shown to produce better outcomes.
“Notably, no explicit strategies or instructions were given as, with few exceptions [204], implicit strategies have been shown to produce better outcomes [205–210].”
From Infraslow closed-loop brain training for anxiety and depression (ISAD): a protocol for a randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled pilot trial in adult females with internalizing disorders (2022) · cites this paper as [205]
The Conclusion (page unavailable) reports a significant learning effect with feedback alone but no consistent evidence that explicit motor-imagery instructions enhanced self-regulation. That supports the rationale for omitting strategy instructions, but the paper says the effect of explicit instructions remains uncertain; it does not establish that implicit strategies generally produce better outcomes. (LLM, conf=0.85)
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Tang, Y., & Tang, R. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-15602-1.00001-x
Computational Psychiatry and Eating Disorders
Sepúlveda, P., Aitsahalia, I. F., Dong, S., & Iigaya, K. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780197675212.003.0006
Delineating implicit and explicit processes in neurofeedback learningPreprint
Cleeremans, A., & Muñoz-Moldes, S. (2020) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints)
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A Feasibility Study of Real-Time FMRI with Neurofeedback of Motor Performance in Cerebellar Ataxia
Berenbaum, J. G., Marvel, C. L., Lisinski, J. M., Soldate, J. S., Morgan, O. P., Kucharski, A. N., Lutzel, L. P., Ecker, J. A., Rice, L. C., Mistri, A., et al. (2026) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci16020120
Music-to My Brain: Modulation of Reward System Activity via Musical NeurofeedbackPreprint
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- Authors
- Sepulveda, P., Sitaram, R., Rana, M., Montalba, C., Tejos, C., & Ruiz, S.
- Affiliations
- Biomedical Imaging Center Pontificia Universidad Católica De Chile Santiago Chile
- Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (CL)
- Laboratory of Brain‐Machine Interfaces and Neuromodulation Pontificia Universidad Católica De Chile Santiago Chile
- Venue
- Human Brain Mapping
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2016-06-06
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 3153-3171
- ISSN
- 1065-9471 (ISSN-L)
- 1097-0193
- PMC
- PMC6867497
- OpenAlex
- W2413308320
- Cited by
- 90
- References
- 113
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 2
- FWCI
- 5.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Human Brain Mapping (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- New INDIGO
- Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (01DQ13004)
- Comisión Nacional de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica (Anillo ACT1416, ACT 1416)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › EEG and Brain-Computer Interfaces
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Functional Brain Connectivity Studies
- Keywords
- real-time fMRI neurofeedback, brain self-regulation, motor imagery, monetary rewards, explicit instruction, supplementary motor area, volitional control, functional connectivity, interindividual variability
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Brain, Brain Mapping, Humans, Learning, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Reward, Imagery, Psychotherapy, Young Adult, Neurofeedback
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