Meeting Suffering With Kindness: Effects of a Brief Self-Compassion Intervention for Female College Students: Self-Compassion Intervention for Students
Open accessAbstract
OBJECTIVE: The present study investigated the effectiveness of a newly developed 3-week self-compassion group intervention for enhancing resilience and well-being among female college students. METHOD: Fifty-two students were randomly assigned to either an intervention designed to teach skills of self-compassion (n = 27) or an active control group intervention in which general time management skills were taught (n = 25). Both interventions comprised 3 group meetings held over 3 weeks. To measure resilience and well-being gains, participants filled out a number of questionnaires before and after the intervention. RESULTS: Results showed that the self-compassion intervention led to significantly greater increases in self-compassion, mindfulness, optimism, and self-efficacy, as well as significantly greater decreases in rumination in comparison to the active control intervention. Whereas both interventions increased life satisfaction and connectedness, no differences were found for worry and mood. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that a brief self-compassion intervention has potential for improving student resilience and well-being.
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Rudaz, M., Twohig, M. P., Ong, C. W., & Levin, M. E. (2017) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2017.10.001 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“However, gains in self-compassion did not predict changes in positive and negative affect (Smeets et al., 2014).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe Mediating Role of Self‐compassion in Student Psychological Health
Fong, M., & Loi, N. M. (2016) · Australian Psychologist · doi:10.1111/ap.12185 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Moffitt, R. L., Neumann, D. L., & Williamson, S. P. (2018) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.08.008 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Reis, N. A., Kowalski, K. C., Ferguson, L. J., Sabiston, C. M., Sedgwick, W. A., & Crocker, P. R. E. (2014) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.08.011 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Liu, Q., Yang, X., Hu, Y., & Zhang, C. (2020) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105397 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Joyce, S., Shand, F., Lal, T. J., Mott, B., Bryant, R. A., & Harvey, S. B. (2019) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/12894 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“The LOT-R has been shown to be a reliable and valid measure (Cronbach alpha=.73) [61,63].”
Connecting attachment style to resilience: Contributions of self-care and self-efficacy
Bender, A. M., & Ingram, R. E. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.03.038 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Muris, P. (2015) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-015-0315-3 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“2012), but there are also treatment programs that specifically focus on the enhancement of this self-related construct (e.g., Gilbert 2009; Neff and Gerner 2013; Smeets et al. 2014).”
BackgroundConstruct validity of the Self-Compassion Scale-Short Form among psychotherapy clients
Hayes, J. A., Lockard, A. J., Janis, R. A., & Locke, B. D. (2016) · Counselling Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1080/09515070.2016.1138397 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Lee, E. E., Bangen, K. J., Avanzino, J. A., Hou, B., Ramsey, M., Eglit, G., Liu, J., Tu, X. M., Paulus, M., & Jeste, D. V. (2020) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.0821 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Keep Calm and Be Happy: A Mixed Method Study from Character Strengths to Well-being
Demırcı, İ., & Eksı, H. (2018) · Educational Sciences Theory & Practice · doi:10.12738/estp.2018.2.0799 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Beyond self-reflection: introducing the concept of rumination in personal informatics
Eikey, E. V., Caldeira, C. M., Figueiredo, M. C., Chen, Y., Borelli, J. L., Mazmanian, M., & Zheng, K. (2021) · Personal and Ubiquitous Computing · doi:10.1007/s00779-021-01573-w · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“Self-compassion can be thought of as treating oneself with care and concern especially during times of failure, mistakes, feelings of inadequacy, and painful experiences [105].”
BackgroundInfluentialIn Their Own Words: The Meaning of the Strong Black Woman Schema among Black U.S. College Women
Jones, M. K., Harris, K. J., & Reynolds, A. A. (2020) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-020-01170-w · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Self-compassion and depression, anxiety, and resilience in adults with epilepsy
Baker, D. A., Caswell, H. L., & Eccles, F. J. R. (2018) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2018.11.025 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“Self-compassion has also been shown to reduce the tendency for harsh self-criticism [73] and to increase the capacity for optimism and feelings of self-efficacy [41,74,75].”
BackgroundParenting self-compassion: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Jefferson, F. A., Shires, A., & McAloon, J. (2020) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-020-01401-x · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Neff, K. D., Tóth‐Király, I., & Colosimo, K. (2018) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2148 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“…Hofmann, Hiller, & Berking, 2014; Johnson & O ’ Brien, 2013; Leary, Tate, Adams, Allen, & Hancock, 2007; Mosewich, Crocker, Kowalski, & DeLongis, 2013; Neff & Germer, 2013; Odou & Brinker, 2014; Shapira & Mongrain, 2010; Smeets, Neff, Alberts, & Peters, 2014), adding robustness to these fi ndings.”
Self-citationThe effectiveness of self-compassion and self-esteem writing tasks in reducing body image concerns.
Seekis, V., Bradley, G., & Duffy, A. L. (2017) · Body image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.09.003 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“…is related to many aspects of psychological well-being (Neff & Vonk, 2009) via its negative associations with anxiety and depression (Johnson & O’Brien, 2013; Neff, Kirkpatrick, & Rude, 2007) and its positive associations with happiness and optimism (Neff et al., 2007; Smeets et al., 2014).”
BackgroundMantelou, A., & Karakasidou, E. (2017) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2017.84038 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“Nevertheless, only one study (Smeets et al., 2014) seems to have investigated this effect through a brief 3-week self-compassion intervention.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialBernabé, J. R. Y., Crego, A., Martínez, M. Á. G., & Jiménez, L. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22932 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Crego, A., Bernabé, J. R. Y., Riesco-Matías, P., Martínez, M. Á. G., & Vicente-Arruebarrena, A. (2022) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s359382 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Angry Rumination Mediates the Unique Associations Between Self-Compassion and Anger and Aggression
Fresnics, A. A., & Borders, A. (2016) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0629-2 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“Moreover, selfcompassion interventions increase mindfulness (Neff and Germer 2013; Smeets et al. 2014), and mindfulness interventions increase self-compassion (Baer 2010; Shapiro et al. 2007).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMao, L., Li, P., Wu, Y., Luo, L., & Hu, M. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.10.022 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Hacking Stigma by Loving Yourself: a Mediated-Moderation Model of Self-Compassion and Stigma
Wong, C. C. Y., Knee, C. R., Neighbors, C., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2019) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-018-0984-2 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Roles of Anger and Rumination in the Relationship Between Self-Compassion and Forgiveness
Wu, Q., Chi, P., Zeng, X., Lin, X., & Du, H. (2018) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-018-0971-7 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“In mindfulness-based stress reduction and selfcompassion intervention studies, self-compassion has been found to be inversely associated with rumination and anger (Robins et al. 2012; Smeets et al. 2014).”
BackgroundHwang, S., Kim, G., Yang, J.-W., & Yang, E. (2016) · Japanese Psychological Research · doi:10.1111/jpr.12109 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Self‐compassion and emotion regulation difficulties in obsessive–compulsive disorder
Eichholz, A., Schwartz, C., Meule, A., Heese, J., Neumüller, J., & Voderholzer, U. (2020) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2451 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“Furthermore, self-compassionate people tend to ruminate or worry less (Johnson & O'Brien, 2013; Krieger, Altenstein, Baettig, Doerig, & Holtforth, 2013; Neff, Kirkpatrick, & Rude, 2007; Raes, 2010; Smeets, Neff, Alberts, & Peters, 2014).”
Haukaas, R. B., Gjerde, I. B., Varting, G., Hallan, H. E., & Solem, S. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00827 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“Fergus et al. (2014) and McEvoy et al. (2017) did not include measures of depression or mindfulness and Smeets et al. (2014) did not include measures of anxiety and depression.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialRoulston, A., Montgomery, L., Campbell, A., & Davidson, G. (2018) · Social Work Education · doi:10.1080/02615479.2017.1388776 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Vötter, B., & Schnell, T. (2019) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-018-1078-x · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“Some experimental (e.g., Arch et al. 2014; Breines and Chen 2012) and interventional studies (e.g., Neff and Germer 2013; Smeets et al. 2014) have lent credence to the assumption that selfcompassion positively impacts on attitude, emotions, and behavior.”
BackgroundInfluentialDeconstructing stigma as a barrier to treating DGBI: Lessons for clinicians
Feingold, J. H., & Drossman, D. A. (2021) · Neurogastroenterology & Motility · doi:10.1111/nmo.14080 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
A Compassionate Self Is a True Self? Self-Compassion Promotes Subjective Authenticity
Zhang, J.-W., Chen, S., Shakur, T. K. T., Bilgin, B., Chai, W.-J., Ramis, T., Shaban-Azad, H., Razavi, P., Nutankumar, T., & Manukyan, A. A. (2019) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167218820914 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“Also, people who were randomly assigned to a 3-week self-compassion intervention, compared with a control group, reported increases in optimism (Smeets, Neff, Alberts, & Peters, 2014).”
BackgroundCompassionate education from preschool to graduate school
Jazaieri, H. (2018) · Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning · doi:10.1108/jrit-08-2017-0017 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“Smeets et al. (2014) looked at a three-week (1.5 hours for the first two weeks followed by a third 45-minute closing session) self-compassion course for female college students.”
BackgroundInfluentialHappy despite pain: Pilot study of a positive psychology intervention for patients with chronic pain
Flink, I. K., Smeets, E., Bergbom, S., & Peters, M. L. (2015) · Scandinavian Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.sjpain.2015.01.005 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Self-citationBeliefs About Self-Compassion: Implications for Coping and Self-Improvement
Chwyl, C., Chen, P., & Zaki, J. (2020) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167220965303 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“Our results demonstrate that a brief online message can increase reported intentions to practice self-compassion— highlighting the promise of briefer, technology-delivered interventions (e.g., Mantelou & Karakasidou, 2017; Mitchell et al., 2018; Smeets et al., 2014).”
ResultResisting self-compassion: Why are some people opposed to being kind to themselves?
Robinson, K. J., Mayer, S., Allen, A. B., Terry, M. L., Chilton, A., & Leary, M. R. (2016) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2016.1160952 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Another intervention focuses on teaching participants how to motivate themselves in a self-compassionate rather than self-critical way, perhaps to emphasize that self-compassion can be related to goal achievement (Smeets et al., 2014).”
BackgroundThe Dyadic Health Influence Model
Huelsnitz, C. O., Jones, R. E., Simpson, J. A., Joyal‐Desmarais, K., Standen, E. C., Auster‐Gussman, L. A., & Rothman, A. J. (2021) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/10888683211054897 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“Similarly, agents can build targets’ selfcompassion by regularly providing targets “the perspective of an ideally compassionate friend,” an instruction that characterizes interventions to develop self-compassion (K. D. Neff & Germer, 2013, p. 33; Smeets et al., 2014).”
BackgroundBrown, S. L., Hughes, M., Campbell, S., & Cherry, M. G. (2020) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2399 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Ko, C. M., Grace, F., Chavez, G. N., Grimley, S. J., Dalrymple, E. R., & Olson, L. E. (2018) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2018.1431913 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Pullmer, R., Coelho, J. S., & Zaitsoff, S. L. (2019) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.23081 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Schöne, C., Tandler, S. S., & Stiensmeier-Pelster, J. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01573 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Compassion for self versus other: A critical review of compassion training research
Quaglia, J. T., Soisson, A., & Simmer‐Brown, J. (2020) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2020.1805502 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Solhaug, I., Eriksen, T. E., Vibe, M. F. D., Haavind, H., Friborg, O., Sørlie, T., & Rosenvinge, J. H. (2016) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0521-0 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“In addition, as a result of self-attunement, the participants experienced the abridgedMBSR program as legitimizing selfcare and self-compassion (Smeets et al. 2014) and the embracing of their imperfections and vulnerabilities.”
Long, P., & Neff, K. D. (2018) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2018.09.003 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationSelf-Compassion: a Protective Factor for Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Torbet, S., Proeve, M., & Roberts, R. M. (2019) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-019-01224-5 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Kreemers, L., van Hooft, E., & van Vianen, A. V. (2018) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2018.02.001 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Neff, K. D., & Tóth‐Király, I. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-77644-2_36-1 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“Moreover, findings with the SCS converge with those obtained with experimental methods involving behavioral interventions or mood manipulations (e.g., Albertson et al., 2015; Breines & Chen, 2012; Diedrich et al., 2014; Johnson & O’Brien, 2013; Leary et al., 2007; Neff & Germer, 2013; Odou & Brinker, 2014; Shapira & M…”
ResultSelf-citationWhat Is the Impact of Online Training in Mind–Body Skills?
Kemper, K. J., Lynn, J., & Mahan, J. D. (2015) · Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine · doi:10.1177/2156587215580882 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Our participants reported similar levels of mindfulness, selfcompassion, and resilience as those reported in other studies.(35,38,48,49) There were also many similarities at baseline between those engaged in MBS and those who did not, suggesting that this project was not ‘‘preaching to the choir.”
ResultPhillips, S. P., & Dalgarno, N. (2017) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-017-0864-9 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“However, without selfcompassion or self-kindness the difficulty of bearing the suffering of others often produces compassion fatigue and less effective medical care, as physicians retreat physically and emotionally from patients, retaining only the role of medical expert [24, 25].”
BackgroundZhou, L., Sukpasjaroen, K., Wu, Y., Liu, G., Chankoson, T., & Cai, E. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835134 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
The Who, What, and Where of School Kindness: Exploring Students’ Perspectives
Binfet, J.-T., & Passmore, H. (2017) · Canadian Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1177/0829573517732202 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Mifsud, À., Pehlivan, M. J., Fam, P., O'Grady, M., van Steensel, A., Elder, E., Gilchrist, J., & Sherman, K. (2021) · Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/21642850.2021.1929236 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
A Call for Self-Compassion in Social Work Education
Iacono, G. (2017) · Journal of Teaching in Social Work · doi:10.1080/08841233.2017.1377145 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“Compassion-based methodologies have recently begun to be empirically evaluated (Smeets et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSelf-compassion and attention: self-compassion facilitates disengagement from negative stimuli
Yip, V. T., & Tong, E. M. W. (2020) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2020.1778060 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Neff, K. D., & Knox, M. C. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_1159-1 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationRabon, J. K., Sirois, F. M., & Hirsch, J. K. (2017) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2017.1382498 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“compassion, mindfulness, optimism, and self-efficacy, and significant decreases in rumination, compared to time-management controls.(41) Further, self-compassion interventions may be delivered in-person or online, can be self-initiated, and are not dependent on advanced”
BackgroundContribution of self‐compassion to positive mental health among Korean university students
Shin, N. Y., & Lim, Y. (2018) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1002/ijop.12527 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Fresnics, A. A., Wang, S. B., & Borders, A. (2019) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2019.02.019 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Narratives of adolescent women athletes’ body self-compassion, performance and emotional well-being
Eke, A. O., Adam, M. E. K., Kowalski, K. C., & Ferguson, L. J. (2019) · Qualitative Research in Sport Exercise and Health · doi:10.1080/2159676x.2019.1628805 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Previous studies have also reported an association between self-compassion and self-confidence (Neff, Hsieh, and Dejitterat 2005; Smeets et al. 2014), particularly that some components of self-compassion (e.g. self-kindness) may have elements of self-confidence (Barry, Loflin, and Doucette 2015).”
BackgroundResultBernabé, J. R. Y., Martínez, M. Á. G., Crego, A., & Jiménez, L. (2019) · Clinical Psychologist · doi:10.1111/cp.12204 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Burke, A. S., Shapero, B. G., Pelletier-Baldelli, A., Deng, W. Y., Nyer, M., Leathem, L., Namey, L., Landa, C. E., Cather, C., & Holt, D. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.01030 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Prior studies have shown that college students with higher levels of self-compassion are better able to manage academic set-backs and social stress, are more willing to try again following academic failures, and experience less homesickness and depression than those with lower levels of self-compassion (70, 88, 112).”
BackgroundHu, Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1190837 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“, 2017), college students (Smeets et al., 2014), and adults with chronic pain (Edwards et al.”
BackgroundBeato, A. F., da Costa, L. P., & Nogueira, R. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18042017 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
- Authors
- Smeets, E., Neff, K., Alberts, H., & Peters, M.
- Affiliations
- Maastricht University (NL)
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- Corresponding author
- Smeets, Elke
- Venue
- Journal of Clinical Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2014-04-01
- Volume
- 70
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 794-807
- ISSN
- 0021-9762 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2105469575
- Cited by
- 469
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 27 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 54 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 62 · 2020: 52 · 2019: 36 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 37 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 4
- FWCI
- 32.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Clinical Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Universiteit Maastricht
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Student Stress and Coping
- Keywords
- self-compassion, group intervention, resilience, well-being, female university students, mindfulness, optimism, self-efficacy, rumination, life satisfaction, connectedness, worry, mood
- MeSH terms
- Empathy, Female, Humans, Psychotherapy, Group, Surveys and Questionnaires, Self Concept, Stress, Psychological, Universities, Resilience, Psychological, Young Adult
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