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Cited by 211Mindfulness and Compassion InterventionsPsychological Well-being and Life SatisfactionReligion, Spirituality, and Psychology

The limited prosocial effects of meditation: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Open access
Kreplin, Ute, Farias, Miguel, Brazil, Inti A.·2018·Scientific Reports
DOI 10.1038/s41598-018-20299-zPMC PMC5799363
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Abstract

Many individuals believe that meditation has the capacity to not only alleviate mental-illness but to improve prosociality. This article systematically reviewed and meta-analysed the effects of meditation interventions on prosociality in randomized controlled trials of healthy adults. Five types of social behaviours were identified: compassion, empathy, aggression, connectedness and prejudice. Although we found a moderate increase in prosociality following meditation, further analysis indicated that this effect was qualified by two factors: type of prosociality and methodological quality. Meditation interventions had an effect on compassion and empathy, but not on aggression, connectedness or prejudice. We further found that compassion levels only increased under two conditions: when the teacher in the meditation intervention was a co-author in the published study; and when the study employed a passive (waiting list) control group but not an active one. Contrary to popular beliefs that meditation will lead to prosocial changes, the results of this meta-analysis showed that the effects of meditation on prosociality were qualified by the type of prosociality and methodological quality of the study. We conclude by highlighting a number of biases and theoretical problems that need addressing to improve quality of research in this area.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This systematic review and meta-analysis found a moderate overall increase in prosociality after meditation, but the effect was limited to compassion and empathy and was qualified by methodological quality. Compassion effects appeared only when the meditation teacher was a study co-author and when the control group was passive rather than active.

Key findings

  • Across the meta-analysis, meditation produced a moderate overall increase in prosociality: r = 0.26 (95% CI 0.18–0.34).
  • By prosocial type, significant effects were found for compassion (r = 0.37, 95% CI 0.24–0.49) and empathy (r = 0.44, 95% CI 0.03–0.84), but not aggression (r = 0.11, 95% CI −0.17–0.48), connectedness (r = 0.22, 95% CI −0.05–0.49), or prejudice (r = 0.11, 95% CI −0.09–0.30).
  • For compassion alone, the effect was r = 0.36 (95% CI 0.25–0.48); it was significant when the teacher was a named author (r = 0.42, 95% CI 0.27–0.57) but not when delivered by external/audio means (r = 0.26, 95% CI −0.07–0.59), and significant with passive controls (r = 0.36, 95% CI 0.20–0.79) but not active controls (r = 0.37, 95% CI −0.04–0.78).
  • Methodological quality was generally weak: 61% of studies were graded weak, 33% moderate, and none strong.

Methods

  • Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials in healthy adults (>18) testing structured meditation programs on prosocial outcomes; databases were searched in May 2015 with no year or language restriction.
  • From 4,517 screened records, 22 articles (total N = 1,685) were included in the systematic review, and 16 studies met criteria for the meta-analysis, yielding 26 independent samples.
  • Effect sizes were calculated as Pearson’s r, Fisher’s z-transformed, and analyzed with random-effects models in MetaWin; categorical moderators were prosocial type, measure type, control group, teacher, and intervention duration.

Limitations

  • The paper states that most included studies had weak methodological quality, few controlled for confounds or expectation effects, only five reported randomization, and many used meditation teachers who were study co-authors; it also notes over-reporting of marginally significant results and weak theoretical grounding.
  • The paper states that the low number of empathy studies prevented further moderator analyses, and some prosocial variables such as forgiveness could not be meta-analyzed due to incomplete reporting.
  • Evident from the text: the search was conducted in May 2015, and inclusion was restricted to RCTs, excluding Transcendental Meditation studies that did not meet the design criteria.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1038/s41598-018-20299-z

Cites

71 of 72 references verified1 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

24 of 58 cited sources checked · 18 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Another meta-analysis has shown a similar pattern of non-significant or weak results concerning the effects of meditation on psychological stress and well-being when compared to active controls.

    “Another meta-analysis has shown a similar pattern of non-significant or weak results concerning the effects of meditation on psychological stress and well-being when compared to active controls20.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20] Goyal, M. et al. Meditation programs for psychological stress and well-being: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern. Med. 174, 357–68 (2014). source
  • Premisecitation

    The majority of meta-analyses on the benefits of meditation acknowledge the pervasive methodological shortcomings of the studies analysed, but still suggest that such results are 'encouraging' or 'promising'.

    “Also, the majority of meta-analyses on the benefits of meditation acknowledge the pervasive methodological shortcomings of the studies analysed, but still suggest that such results are ‘encouraging’ or ‘promising’20,21,26,59–62.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [20] Goyal, M. et al. Meditation programs for psychological stress and well-being: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern. Med. 174, 357–68 (2014). source
    • cites [21] Sedlmeier, P. et al. The psychological effects of meditation: A meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 138, 1139–1171 (2012). source
    • cites [26] Chiesa, A. & Serretti, A. Mindfulness-based stress reduction for stress management in healthy people: a review and meta-analysis. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 15, 593–600 (2009). source
  • Premisecitation

    Recent work indicates that experimenter biases are not a thing of the past.

    “Recent work indicates that experimenter biases are not a thing of the past.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [49] Doyen, S., Klein, O., Pichon, C.-L. & Cleermans, A. Behavioural priming: It’s all in the mind, but whose mind? PLoS One 7, e28081 (2012). source
  • Findingcitation

    These compassion studies used as the major outcome measure a scale of Self-Compassion that assessed the same emotions that were elicited during the intervention.

    “Also, these studies used as the major outcome measure a scale of Self-Compassion that assessed the same emotions that were elicited during the intervention35,37,38,47.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [35] Arch, J. J. et al. Self-compassion training modulates alpha-amylase, heart rate variablity, and subjective responses to social evaluative threat in women. Psychoneuroendocrinology 42, 49–58 (2014). source

      The Methods (Measures; page unavailable) say the study used the Self-Compassion Scale to assess changes in self-compassion, and Methods (Design and Procedures; page unavailable) describe training in kindness and acceptance toward oneself. But the paper also identifies anxiety and physiological responses as major outcomes; it does not present the Self-Compassion Scale as the major outcome measure. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [37] Smeets, E., Neff, K., Alberts, H. & Peters, M. Meeting suffering with kindness: Effects of a brief self-compassion intervention for female college students. J. Clin. Psychol. 70, 794–807 (2014). source
    • cites [38] Wallmark, E., Safarzadeh, K., Daukantaite, D. & Maddux, R. E. Promoting altruism through meditation: An 8-week randomized controlled pilot study. Mindfulness (N. Y). 4, 223–234 (2013). source
    • cites [47] Neff, K. D. & Germer, C. K. A pilot study and randomized controlled trial of the mindful self-compassion program. J. Clin. Psychol. 69, 28–44 (2013). source
  • Findingcitation

    Only rarely do studies try to look at underpinning mechanisms, such as the role of meditation in increasing empathic accuracy or in decreasing psychological stress.

    “Only rarely do studies try to look at underpinning mechanisms, such as the role of meditation in increasing empathic accuracy43 or in decreasing psychological stress41.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [43] Lim, D., Condon, P. & Desteno, D. Mindfulness and compassion: An examination of mechanism and scalability. PLoS One 10, 1–9 (2015). source
    • cites [41] Kang, Y., Gray, J. R. & Dovidio, J. F. The nondiscriminating heart: lovingkindness meditation training decreases implicit intergroup bias. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 143, 1306–13 (2014). source
  • May combine two claims. 30
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 46

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Only two included studies assessed confounding factors, and only five reported the method of randomization.

    “Only two studies assessed confounding factors, such as demand characteristics34,35, and only five reported the method of randomization36–40.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim3 of 7 sources checked
    • cites [34] Robins, C., Keng, S.-L., Ekblad, A. & Brantley, J. Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on emotional experience and expression: A randomized controlled trial. J. Clin. Psychol. 68, 117–31 (2012). source
    • cites [35] Arch, J. J. et al. Self-compassion training modulates alpha-amylase, heart rate variablity, and subjective responses to social evaluative threat in women. Psychoneuroendocrinology 42, 49–58 (2014). source

      The Methods (Design and Procedures; page unavailable) report a check for cohort effects, and the Statistical Approach describes adjustment for potential confounders. The paper also says participants were randomly assigned, but does not specify how the randomization sequence was generated. As an individual study, it cannot establish the citing document’s counts of two and five included studies. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [36] Kemeny, M. E. et al. Contemplative/emotion training reduces negative emotional behavior and promotes prosocial responses. Emotion 12, 338–350 (2012). source
    • cites [37] Smeets, E., Neff, K., Alberts, H. & Peters, M. Meeting suffering with kindness: Effects of a brief self-compassion intervention for female college students. J. Clin. Psychol. 70, 794–807 (2014). source
    • cites [38] Wallmark, E., Safarzadeh, K., Daukantaite, D. & Maddux, R. E. Promoting altruism through meditation: An 8-week randomized controlled pilot study. Mindfulness (N. Y). 4, 223–234 (2013). source
    • cites [39] Yusainy, C. & Lawrence, C. Brief mindfulness induction could reduce aggression after depletion. Conscious. Cogn. 33C, 125–134 (2015). source
    • cites [40] Rosenberg, E. L. et al. Intensive meditation training influences emotional responses to suffering. Emotion 15, 775–90 (2015). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Previous articles have reviewed the clinical benefits of compassion meditation (CM) and loving kindness meditation (LKM), both of which include a concern with stimulating positive other-centred emotions.

    “Previous articles have reviewed the clinical benefits of compassion meditation (CM) and loving kindness meditation (LKM), both of which include a concern with stimulating positive other-centred emotions17–19.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim3 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [17] Galante, J., Galante, I., Bekkers, M. & Gallacher, J. Effect of kindness-based meditation on health and well-being: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 82, 1101–1114 (2014). source
    • cites [18] Hofmann, S. G., Grossman, P. & Hinton, D. E. Loving- kindness and compassion meditation: Potential for psy- chological interventions. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 31, 1126–1132 (2011). source
    • cites [19] Shonin, E., Gordon, W. V & Compare, A. Buddhist-derived loving-kindness and compassion meditation for the treatment of psychopathology: A systematic review. Mindfulness (N. Y). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0368-1 (2014). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    When making some experimenters believe that priming participants with age-related stereotypes would slow them down, this had a significant effect, but only in those experimenters that were made to believe in the stereotypes.

    “They further showed that when making some experimenters believe that priming participants with age-related stereotypes would slow them down, this indeed had a significant effect, but only in those experimenters that were made to believe in the stereotypes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [49] Doyen, S., Klein, O., Pichon, C.-L. & Cleermans, A. Behavioural priming: It’s all in the mind, but whose mind? PLoS One 7, e28081 (2012). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Eight included studies used written or recorded meditation instructions.

    “A further eight studies used written or recorded meditation instructions13,35,39,42–46.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim4 of 8 sources checked
    • cites [13] Hutcherson, C. A., Seppala, E. M. & Gross, J. J. Loving-kindness meditation increases social connectedness. Emotion 8, 720–724 (2008). source
    • cites [35] Arch, J. J. et al. Self-compassion training modulates alpha-amylase, heart rate variablity, and subjective responses to social evaluative threat in women. Psychoneuroendocrinology 42, 49–58 (2014). source
    • cites [39] Yusainy, C. & Lawrence, C. Brief mindfulness induction could reduce aggression after depletion. Conscious. Cogn. 33C, 125–134 (2015). source
    • cites [42] Heppner, W. L. et al. Mindfulness as a means of reducing aggressive behavior: Dispositional and situational evidence. Aggress. Behav. 34, 486–496 (2008). source
    • cites [43] Lim, D., Condon, P. & Desteno, D. Mindfulness and compassion: An examination of mechanism and scalability. PLoS One 10, 1–9 (2015). source
    • cites [44] Parks, S., Birtel, M. D. & Crisp, R. J. Evidence that a brief meditation exercise can reduce prejudice toward homeless people. Soc. Psychol. (Gott). https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000212 (2014). source
    • cites [45] Ramsey, A. T. & Jones, E. E. Minding the interpersonal gap: Mindfulness-based interventions in the prevention of ostracism. Conscious. Cogn. 31, 24–34 (2015). source
    • cites [46] Tan, L. B. G., Lo, B. C. Y. & Macrae, C. N. Brief mindfulness meditation improves mental state attribution and empathizing. PLoS One 9, e110510 (2014). source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Methodological quality was assessed using the Cochrane Collaboration's risk-of-bias tool, considering random sequence generation, advertisement as a meditation intervention, control for confound variables, blinding of outcome assessment, and selective reporting of statistical results.

    “Methodological quality was assed using the Cochrane Collaboration’s risk-of-bias tool32,33 which included considering if the study: used random sequence generation; was advertised as a meditation intervention; controlled for confound variables (e.g. demand characteristics); included blinding of outcome assessment; and showed selective reporting of statistical results.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [32] Higgins, J. P. T. et al. The Cochrane Collaboration’s tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. Bmj 343, d5928–d5928 (2011). source

      Table 1 (Additional information; page not provided) identifies random sequence generation, blinding of outcome assessment, and selective outcome reporting as domains of the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool. It does not identify advertising a study as a meditation intervention or controlling for confounders as tool domains, and its selective-reporting domain concerns outcomes rather than statistical results specifically. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [33] Owens, D. K. et al. AHRQ series paper 5: Grading the strength of a body of evidence when comparing medical interventions - Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality and the Effective Health-Care Program. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 63, 513–523 (2010). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Kaptchuk has summarised a number of potential interpretative biases that have become widespread in science reporting, including a confirmation bias, where one tends to evaluate evidence that supports one's beliefs more favourably than evidence that challenges it.

    “Kaptchuk54 has summarised a number of potential interpretative biases that have become widespread in science reporting, including a confirmation bias, where one tends to evaluate evidence that supports one’s beliefs more favourably than evidence that challenges it.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [54] Kaptchuk, T. J. Effect of interpretive bias on research evidence. BMJ Br. Med. J. 326, 1453–1455 (2003). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The research literature tends to swiftly reference the health benefits of meditation and/or mention the alleged prosocial effects of meditation in the Buddhist tradition.

    “The research literature tends to swiftly reference the health benefits of meditation and/or mention the alleged prosocial effects of meditation in the Buddhist tradition36,38,41.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [36] Kemeny, M. E. et al. Contemplative/emotion training reduces negative emotional behavior and promotes prosocial responses. Emotion 12, 338–350 (2012). source
    • cites [38] Wallmark, E., Safarzadeh, K., Daukantaite, D. & Maddux, R. E. Promoting altruism through meditation: An 8-week randomized controlled pilot study. Mindfulness (N. Y). 4, 223–234 (2013). source
    • cites [41] Kang, Y., Gray, J. R. & Dovidio, J. F. The nondiscriminating heart: lovingkindness meditation training decreases implicit intergroup bias. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 143, 1306–13 (2014). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A recent review of LKM and CM found these techniques ill-defined and lacking standardised protocols.

    “For example, a recent review of LKM and CM found these techniques ill-defined and lacking standardised protocols19.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [19] Shonin, E., Gordon, W. V & Compare, A. Buddhist-derived loving-kindness and compassion meditation for the treatment of psychopathology: A systematic review. Mindfulness (N. Y). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0368-1 (2014). source

      The Clinical Integration Issues section says studies sometimes use LKM and CM interchangeably and calls for clear working definitions, supporting the claim that the techniques are ill-defined. The Limitations of the Current Evidence Base section says few studies assessed whether interventions followed their delivery plans, but our copy does not establish that standardized protocols are lacking. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A recent meta-analysis of Buddhist meditation techniques considered a dimension representing 'kindness and social domains' alongside health, well-being and suffering, and concluded that the results for the clinical and social effects of the nine examined studies were encouraging, but inconsistent.

    “Recognising that meditation may influence social behaviour, a recent meta-analysis of Buddhist meditation techniques considered a dimension representing ‘kindness and social domains’, alongside health, well-being and suffering17. It was concluded that the results for the clinical and social effects of the nine examined studies were encouraging, but inconsistent.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [17] Galante, J., Galante, I., Bekkers, M. & Gallacher, J. Effect of kindness-based meditation on health and well-being: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 82, 1101–1114 (2014). source

      Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    All except one of the studies where the intervention was taught by a person used a meditation teacher who was a named author in the study (information unavailable for two studies).

    “All except one of the studies41, where the intervention was taught by a person, used a meditation teacher that was a named author in the study (information unavailable for two studies24,25).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [41] Kang, Y., Gray, J. R. & Dovidio, J. F. The nondiscriminating heart: lovingkindness meditation training decreases implicit intergroup bias. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 143, 1306–13 (2014). source
    • cites [24] Oman, D., Thoresen, C. E. & Hedberg, J. Does passage meditation foster compassionate love among health professionals?: a randomised trial. Ment. Health. Relig. Cult. 13, 129–154 (2010). source
    • cites [25] Oman, D., Shapiro, S. L., Thoresen, C. E., Plante, T. G. & Flinders, T. Meditation lowers stress and supports forgiveness among college students: a randomized controlled trial. J Am. Coll. Health 56, 569–578 (2008). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The methodological quality of the included studies was generally weak (61%), with 33% graded as moderate and none graded as strong.

    “The methodological quality of the studies was generally weak (61%), while one third (33%) was graded as moderate, and none had a grading of strong (see Supplementary Table S2).”
    • Also stated in: § General Discussion · plain
      “The methodological quality of 61% of the studies was graded as weak.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Meditation interventions had an effect on compassion and empathy, but not on aggression, connectedness, or prejudice.

    “Meditation interventions had an effect on compassion and empathy, but not on aggression, connectedness or prejudice.”
    • Also stated in: § Results of the meta-analysis · hedged
      “The results indicated that compassion and empathy where affected by the meditation intervention (r = 0.37 and r = 0.44, respectively). That is, meditation intervention had a positive effect on levels of empathy and compassion, relative to baseline. This was not the case for aggression, connectedness, and prejudice (see Table 3).”
    • Also stated in: § General Discussion · plain
      “Meditation interventions had an effect on the categories of compassion and empathy, but not on aggression, connectedness, or prejudice.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The prosocial outcome measures used in the included studies validly measure the constructs they are intended to measure.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The effect of meditation on compassion was moderated by the meditation teacher: compassion increased when the teacher was a named author (r = 0.42, 95% CI 0.27, 0.57), but not when taught by someone not listed as an author or through paper/audio instructions (r = 0.26, 95% CI −0.07, 0.59).

    “The moderator analysis for teacher indicated an increase in compassion for studies were the meditation teacher was a named author on the study (r = 0.42, 95% CI 0.27, 0.57), but not when the intervention was taught by someone not listed as an author or through paper/audio instructions (r = 0.26, 95% CI −0.07, 0.59).”
    • Also stated in: § General Discussion · plain
      “Specifically, the moderation results showed that a significant increase in compassion only occurred if the intervention teacher was a co-author in the published study, but not when the intervention was delivered by other means (written/audio) or by a teacher that was not a co-author in the publication.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The prosocial outcome measures used in the included studies validly measure the constructs they are intended to measure.
    • Rests on an assumption: The type of control group (active versus passive) and whether the meditation teacher was a co-author are indicators of methodological quality or experimenter bias that can explain differences in compassion effects.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The effect of meditation on compassion was moderated by the type of control group: the effect was non-significant when an active control group was used (r = 0.37, 95% CI −0.04, 0.78), while it was significant with a passive control group (r = 0.36, 95% CI 0.20, 0.79).

    “The moderator analysis for type of control group indicated that the results for levels of compassion were more varied when employing an active (r = 0.37, 95% CI −0.04, 0.78) versus a passive control group (r = 0.36, 95% CI 0.20, 0.79), which led to a non-significant effect when employing an active control group.”
    • Also stated in: § General Discussion · plain
      “The results for compassion were also moderated by the type of control group; specifically, the effect became non-significant when an active control group was used.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The prosocial outcome measures used in the included studies validly measure the constructs they are intended to measure.
    • Rests on an assumption: The type of control group (active versus passive) and whether the meditation teacher was a co-author are indicators of methodological quality or experimenter bias that can explain differences in compassion effects.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The techniques most commonly used in the included studies were mindfulness-based interventions, LKM, and CM.

    “The techniques most commonly used were mindfulness-based interventions, LKM, and CM.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The results either failed to show that the mechanism in question played any significant role or it only worked partially (reducing psychological distress when dealing with prejudice regarding homeless but not Black people).

    “However, the results either failed to show that the mechanism in question played any significant role or it only worked partially (reducing psychological distress when dealing with prejudice regarding homeless but not Black people)41.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [41] Kang, Y., Gray, J. R. & Dovidio, J. F. The nondiscriminating heart: lovingkindness meditation training decreases implicit intergroup bias. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 143, 1306–13 (2014). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The search identified 4517 records after duplicate removal, excluded 4464 studies, and left 54 articles for full text analysis.

    “Following the removal of duplicates, 4517 records were identified and screened (see Fig. 1). Two researchers independently read the titles and abstracts, excluding 4464 studies that did not meet the inclusion criteria (see Table 1), which left a total of 54 articles for full text analysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The search strategy captured all relevant studies on meditation and prosociality.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The length of interventions varied from 3 minutes to a 3-month meditation retreat, with 39% of studies lasting 8 weeks.

    “The length of the interventions varied from 3 minutes to a 3-month meditation retreat, though more than a third of studies (39%) lasted for 8-weeks.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Over two thirds of the included studies (71%) were published from 2010 to 2015.

    “The earliest study included was published in 2004 but over two thirds of the studies (71%) were from 2010–2015, which shows a growing interest in assessing the prosocial effects of meditation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The remaining 42% used audio recordings or online instructions.

    “and the remaining 42% used audio recordings or online instructions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Another study engaged an external instructor who was not connected to the study in any other way.

    “and another study engaged an external instructor who was not connected to the study in any other way41.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [41] Kang, Y., Gray, J. R. & Dovidio, J. F. The nondiscriminating heart: lovingkindness meditation training decreases implicit intergroup bias. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 143, 1306–13 (2014). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the compassion-only analysis, there was a moderation effect for type of control group and meditation teacher, but no other moderator.

    “we found a moderation effect for type of control group and meditation teacher, but no other moderator (see Table 3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Other conceptually interesting prosocial variables, such as forgiveness, could not be considered in the meta-analysis due to incomplete reporting of statistical results.

    “Other conceptually interesting prosocial variables, such as forgiveness24,25, could not be considered in the meta-analysis due to incomplete reporting of statistical results.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [24] Oman, D., Thoresen, C. E. & Hedberg, J. Does passage meditation foster compassionate love among health professionals?: a randomised trial. Ment. Health. Relig. Cult. 13, 129–154 (2010). source
    • cites [25] Oman, D., Shapiro, S. L., Thoresen, C. E., Plante, T. G. & Flinders, T. Meditation lowers stress and supports forgiveness among college students: a randomized controlled trial. J Am. Coll. Health 56, 569–578 (2008). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The reports we examined lacked an overall coherent theoretical framework or even an attempt to theorise about how meditation works.

    “We simply wish to point out the conceptual mist which comes across in the reports we examined, either in the lack of an overall coherent theoretical framework, or even the lack of an attempt to theorise about how meditation works.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The 22 included articles (total N = 1685) were randomised controlled trials using a meditation intervention and a passive or active control group, with at least one prosocial outcome.

    “The twenty-two included articles (total N = 1685) reported studies that were randomised-control trials (RCT), used a meditation intervention and a passive or active control group, and had at least one outcome related to prosocial variables (e.g. Self-Compassion scale, Implicit Association Test of prejudice, empathic facial expression rating).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The search strategy captured all relevant studies on meditation and prosociality.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingreasoning

    The search was unable to include any study employing Transcendental Meditation because their methodology did not meet the inclusion criteria.

    “Because our inclusion criteria focused on randomised controlled trials, we were unable to include a single study employing Transcendental Meditation. Although we found a number of studies on the prosocial effects of this technique, particularly on its supposed effect on reducing violence10, their methodology did not meet our inclusion criteria.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10] Haegelin, J. et al. Effects of group practice of the Transcendental Meditation program on preventing violent crime in Washington, D.C.: Results of the National Demonstration Project, June–July 1993. Soc. Indic. Res. 47, 153–201 (1999). source
    • Rests on an assumption: The search strategy captured all relevant studies on meditation and prosociality.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingreasoning

    The joint status of study co-author and meditation teacher affects the results of the compassion studies.

    “The second moderator we found is more controversial, and this seems to be a novel finding. In what way does the joint status of study co-author and meditation teacher affect the results of the compassion studies?”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingreasoning

    The majority of studies we reviewed presented very tenuous and unclear justifications for why a meditation intervention ought to improve prosocial outcomes.

    “The majority of studies we reviewed presented very tenuous and unclear justifications for why a meditation intervention ought to improve prosocial outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    On p. 461, the authors reported a marginally significant difference (p = 0.069) in favour of the meditation intervention relative to the control group.

    “On p. 461, the authors reported a marginally significant difference (p = 0.069) in favour of the meditation intervention relative to the control group.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    The studies used a wide range of prosocial outcome measures, including self-report instruments, implicit association tasks, and behavioural measures.

    “The studies used a wide range of prosocial outcome measures, including self-report instruments, implicit association tasks, and behavioural measures.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    All heterogeneity statistics for the moderators were non-significant and Rosenthal's fail-safe numbers were large for all analyses.

    “All heterogeneity statistics for the moderators were non-significant and Rosenthal’s fail-safe numbers were large for all analyses (see Table 3 for details).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The majority of studies failed to urge caution in the interpretation of these marginally significant results and, in some cases, discussed them on par with other statistically significant effects.

    “Further, the majority of studies failed to urge caution in the interpretation of these marginally significant results and, in some cases, discussed them a par with other statistically significant effects.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    On the following page, when the authors reported a different set of results that did not favour the meditation intervention they claimed the exact same p-level as non-significant.

    “However, on the following page, when the authors reported a different set of results that did not favour the meditation intervention they claimed the exact same p-level as non-significant”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Sixteen of the 22 studies included in the systematic review met the inclusion criteria for the meta-analysis.

    “Sixteen of the 22 studies included in the systematic review also met the inclusion criteria for the meta-analysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The search strategy captured all relevant studies on meditation and prosociality.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingreasoning

    Another potential instance of a confirmation bias we identified was the inconsistency of reported results in the way that meditation intervention effects were assessed.

    “Another potential instance of a confirmation bias we identified was the inconsistency of reported results in the way that meditation intervention effects were assessed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    This is the first systematic review and meta-analysis of the prosocial effects of meditation.

    “As far as we are aware, this is the first systematic review and meta-analysis of the prosocial effects of meditation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The search strategy captured all relevant studies on meditation and prosociality.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Most of the reports focus on meditation as a tool that can be used for various purposes, such as the cure of social isolation.

    “Most of the reports focus on meditation as a tool that can be used for various purposes, such as the cure of social isolation13.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Hutcherson, C. A., Seppala, E. M. & Gross, J. J. Loving-kindness meditation increases social connectedness. Emotion 8, 720–724 (2008). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In addition to statistically significant results (p < 0.05), 48% of studies reported marginally significant results (p > 0.05), which varied considerably - p-values ranged from 0.06 to 0.14.

    “In addition to statistically significant results (p < 0.05), 48% of studies reported marginally significant results (p > 0.05), which varied considerably — p-values ranged from 0.06 to 0.14.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    This literature generally conveys the impression that Buddhism is particularly concerned with the promotion of prosociality and that meditation is the means to achieve it.

    “Further, this literature generally conveys the impression that Buddhism is particularly concerned with the promotion of prosociality and that meditation is the means to achieve it.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Not all of the prosocial outcome measures used in the studies had been previously validated.

    “Not all of these had been previously validated, but the crux of the methodological shortcomings lies elsewhere, as the quality of studies analysis and moderator analysis reveals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The total sample showed high heterogeneity once divided into subgroups based on prosocial types, but effect sizes were homogeneous within each subgroup.

    “Although the overall analysis indicated that there was homogeneity of effect sizes across studies, this was not the case once the total sample was divided into subgroups based on the different prosocial types, which showed high heterogeneity. This was probably caused by the considerable variety of outcome measures across studies. Note that the effect sizes were still homogeneous within each subg”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Nine of the twenty-one selected studies included an active control condition; the remainder used wait list control groups.

    “Nine of the twenty-one selected studies included a control condition with an active task, which varied from watching a nature video to the use of other interventions, such as a time-management course. The remainder used wait list control groups.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Only one study stated that the meditation instructor, although being part of the research team, had no part in the data analysis.

    “Only one study stated that the meditation instructor, although being part of the research team, had no part in the data analysis (Neff and Germer, personal communication)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    This is a rather inaccurate understanding of a rich and plural religious tradition.

    “This is a rather inaccurate understanding of a rich and plural religious tradition.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [56] Lopez, D. Buddhism and science: A guide for the perplexed. (University of Chicago Press, 2008). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Leading academics of South Asian religions have highlighted the Western misreading and reconstruction of Buddhism as a rational form of inquiry focused on meditation, which has been uncritically accepted by psychology researchers.

    “Leading academics of South Asian religions have highlighted the Western misreading and reconstruction of Buddhism as a rational form of inquiry focused on meditation, which has been uncritically accepted by psychology researchers56.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [56] Lopez, D. Buddhism and science: A guide for the perplexed. (University of Chicago Press, 2008). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Experimenter biases are introduced which affect the outcomes of the compassion studies.

    “at worse, it suggests that experimenter biases are introduced which affect the outcomes of the studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    It is likely that the inconsistency of reported results is the result of a bias to report significant results and neglect non-significant ones.

    “It is unclear what exactly underpins this inconsistency, but it is likely to be the result of a bias to report significant results and neglect non-significant ones.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Having a meditation teacher who knows nothing about the hypotheses of the study and has no part in designing, analysing and writing the results would reduce the likelihood of methodological biases.

    “Having a meditation teacher who knows nothing about the hypotheses of the study and has no part in designing, analysing and writing the results, would also reduce the likelihood of methodological biases.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Other scholars have cast a critical light upon the definition of mindfulness as a process of paying attention, in the present moment and non-judgmentally, regarding it as something different from what the Buddha scriptures describe.

    “Other scholars have also cast a critical light upon the definition of mindfulness as a process of paying attention, in the present moment and non-judgmentally57, regarding it as something different from what the Buddha scriptures describe”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [57] Kabat-Zinn, J. Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. (Hyperion Press, 1994).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [58] Brazier, D. A popular misconception. Self Soc. 43, 21–29 (2015). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Two researchers independently read the titles and abstracts for screening.

    “Two researchers independently read the titles and abstracts, excluding 4464 studies that did not meet the inclusion criteria (see Table 1), which left a total of 54 articles for full text analysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Two researchers graded the studies using the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool, a third independent researcher also graded them, the three agreed on 72% of grades, and disagreements were resolved by consensus.

    “Two researchers read and graded the twenty-two studies based on the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool. To further reduce bias from researchers undertaking the grading, we asked a third researcher who had no part in planning the review and meta-analysis, and is not a named author in this article, to also grade the methodological quality of the studies. The three researchers agreed on 72% of grades. Grades”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The quality assessment was supplemented with columns for intervention teacher and type of control group to control for potential experimenter effects and demand characteristics.

    “We supplemented this with two further columns one being ‘intervention teacher’ to control for potential experimenter effects and demand characteristics, the other the type of control group the study had used (see Supplementary Table S2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    When teacher information was not available, authors were contacted via email and all except one answered.

    “When teacher information was not available in the study, authors were contacted via email and all, except one, answered.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The Q statistic was used to assess heterogeneity, and publication bias was estimated using Rosenthal's fail-safe number with α = 0.05.

    “The Q statistic was used to assess heterogeneity30, and publication bias was estimated using Rosenthal’s fail-safe number with α = 0.0531.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [30] Hedges, L. V & Olkin, I. Statistical methods for meta-analysis. (Academic Press, 1985).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [31] Rosenthal, R. The ‘file drawer problem’ and tolerance for null results. Psychol. Bull. 638–641 (1979). source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The review used a stringent definition of meditation as focused attention not involving physical activity, and only included interventions in which meditation was the predominant technique.

    “We used a stringent definition of meditation as a form of focused attention to one or more elements, such as to one’s body, breath, conscious awareness, or to a particular word, thought or emotive state, which did not involve any physical activity. This excluded mind-body activities that sometimes involve meditation, such as yoga and Tai-Chi. We also only included interventions in which meditation”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    The publication distribution shows a growing interest in assessing the prosocial effects of meditation.

    “which shows a growing interest in assessing the prosocial effects of meditation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A motivated meditation teacher will impact to a greater extent one's students.

    “At best this shows that a motivated meditation teacher will impact to a greater extent one’s students”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The lack of a clear attempt to address underpinning mechanisms of meditation makes the literature more vulnerable to implicit magical beliefs about the power of Eastern contemplative techniques.

    “The lack of a clear attempt to address underpinning mechanisms of meditation makes the literature more vulnerable to implicit magical beliefs about the power of Eastern contemplative techniques, even when adapted into medical and mental health settings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    For most forms of Buddhism, it is not meditation but the study of sacred scriptures that is the most valued means to achieve deep personal transformation.

    “For example, such authors highlight that for most forms of Buddhism, it is not meditation but the study of sacred scriptures that is the most valued means to achieve deep personal transformation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [56] Lopez, D. Buddhism and science: A guide for the perplexed. (University of Chicago Press, 2008). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Our assessment of the quality of the studies identified several methodological weaknesses, which increase the likelihood that biases were introduced.

    “Our assessment of the quality of the studies identified several methodological weaknesses, which increase the likelihood that biases were introduced.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The weak methodological quality of the studies and the moderator results indicate low confidence in the validity and replicability of the examined studies.

    “Overall, the weak methodological quality of the studies and the results for the moderator analysis indicates low confidence in the validity and replicability of the examined studies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The prosocial outcome measures used in the included studies validly measure the constructs they are intended to measure.
    • Rests on an assumption: The type of control group (active versus passive) and whether the meditation teacher was a co-author are indicators of methodological quality or experimenter bias that can explain differences in compassion effects.
    • Rests on an assumption: The categorisation of outcome measures into five prosocial types is valid and comparable across studies.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Despite high hopes, our analysis suggests that meditating is likely to have a positive, but still relatively limited effect in making individuals feel or act in a substantially more socially connected, or less aggressive and prejudiced way.

    “Despite these high hopes, our analysis suggests that meditating is likely to have a positive, but still relatively limited effect in making individuals feel or act in a substantially more socially connected, or less aggressive and prejudiced way.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The adaptation of spiritual practices into the lab suffers from methodological weaknesses and is partly immersed in theoretical mist.

    “However, the adaptation of spiritual practices into the lab suffers from methodological weaknesses and is partly immersed in theoretical mist.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
63 of 63

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The prosocial outcome measures used in the included studies validly measure the constructs they are intended to measure.

    “Not all of these had been previously validated, but the crux of the methodological shortcomings lies elsewhere, as the quality of studies analysis and moderator analysis reveals.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The type of control group (active versus passive) and whether the meditation teacher was a co-author are indicators of methodological quality or experimenter bias that can explain differences in compassion effects.

    “We supplemented this with two further columns one being ‘intervention teacher’ to control for potential experimenter effects and demand characteristics, the other the type of control group the study had used (see Supplementary Table S2).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The categorisation of outcome measures into five prosocial types is valid and comparable across studies.

    “Social measures used in these sixteen studies were categorised into five types of prosocial feelings and behaviors: compassion, connectedness, empathy, aggression and prejudice. The latter two types are considered prosocial in a reversed way, as the studies under analysis are looking at their reduction. Categorisation was data driven.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The search strategy captured all relevant studies on meditation and prosociality.

    “In May 2015 we searched PsycINFO, AMED, EMBASE, MEDLINE, PsychARTICLES, DirectSCIENCE, SCOPUS, and COCHRANE databases. We did not include year or language restriction.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Media portrayal of meditation as a cure for a range of mental health problems or to improve well-being leads participants to have a high expectation of the benefits of a meditation intervention.

    “The media portrayal of meditation as a cure for a range of mental health problems or to improve well-being51 is very likely to feedback into participants who will have a high expectation of the benefits of a meditation intervention.”
5 of 5

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The type of therapists and their training can play a relevant role in the effectiveness of MBIs.

    “As Kreplin et al. [17] critically pointed out, the type of therapists and their training (as teachers, psychologists, or other) can play a relevant role in the effectiveness of MBIs.”

    From The effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions on anxiety disorders. A systematic meta-review (2020) · cites this paper as [17]

    The Results (Results of the meta-analysis; page unavailable) report that compassion outcomes varied by whether the meditation teacher was a study author, and the General Discussion considers teacher-related bias. The paper does not assess therapists’ professional background or training as teachers, psychologists, or otherwise, so that part of the claim is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • In Kreplin et al.'s review, no effects were observed of meditation on some prosocial behaviors such as aggression or prejudice.

    “In Kreplin, Farias, and Brazil’s review [17], no effects were observed of meditation on some prosocial behaviors such as aggression or prejudice.”

    From The effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions on anxiety disorders. A systematic meta-review (2020) · cites this paper as [17]

  • Given the overall high risk of bias of included trials, degree of allegiance to the MBP assessed could play an important role.

    “Given the overall high risk of bias of the included trials, degree of allegiance to the MBP assessed could play an important role, as suggested in previous studies [283,284].”

    From Mindfulness-based programmes for mental health promotion in adults in nonclinical settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials (2021) · cites this paper as [284]

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Consistentt(75) = 1.85reported p = .069 · recomputed p = .068

    “t(75) = 1.85, p = .069”

1 of 1

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Screening subtraction leaves 53 articles, not 54

    Minor

    Subtracting 4,464 excluded records from 4,517 screened records leaves 53 articles for full-text analysis, not 54.

    Reported 54 · recomputed 53

  • Full-text exclusions do not account for the included articles

    Minor

    Of 54 articles assessed in full text, rejecting thirty would leave 24, not the stated twenty-two included articles.

  • Two different overall fail-safe numbers are reported

    Minor

    The same discussion of the overall meta-analysis gives its fail-safe number as both 396 and 105.

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Hedges, L. V & Olkin, I. Statistical methods for meta-analysis. (Academic Press, 1985).

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Kreplin, U., Farias, M., & Brazil, I. A.
Affiliations
  • Massey University (NZ)
  • Coventry University (GB)
  • Radboud University Nijmegen (NL)
Corresponding author
  • Kreplin, Ute
  • Farias, Miguel
  • Brazil, Inti A.
ORCID
Venue
Scientific Reports
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2018-02-05
Volume
8
Issue
1
Pages
2403-2403
ISSN
2045-2322 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1038/s41598-018-20299-z
PMC
PMC5799363
OpenAlex
W2786619807
Cited by
211
References
72
Citations by year
2026: 15 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 29 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 12
FWCI
3.49
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Scientific Reports (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
  • Pure (Coventry University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
  • Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
  • Social Sciences › Health › Religion, Spirituality, and Psychology
Keywords
meditation, prosocial behavior, compassion, empathy, aggression, connectedness, prejudice, meditation intervention, methodological quality, waitlist control
MeSH terms
Adult, Aggression, Empathy, Female, Humans, Male, Prejudice, Bias, Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic, Meditation, Social Skills

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-28.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-28.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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