Asexuality: a mixed-methods approach
Abstract
Current definitions of asexuality focus on sexual attraction, sexual behavior, and lack of sexual orientation or sexual excitation; however, the extent to which these definitions are accepted by self-identified asexuals is unknown. The goal of Study 1 was to examine relationship characteristics, frequency of sexual behaviors, sexual difficulties and distress, psychopathology, interpersonal functioning, and alexithymia in 187 asexuals recruited from the Asexuality Visibility and Education Network (AVEN). Asexual men (n = 54) and women (n = 133) completed validated questionnaires online. Sexual response was lower than normative data and was not experienced as distressing, and masturbation frequency in males was similar to available data for sexual men. Social withdrawal was the most elevated personality subscale; however, interpersonal functioning was in the normal range. Alexithymia was elevated in 12%. Social desirability was also in the normal range. Study 2 was designed to expand upon these quantitative findings with 15 asexuals from Study 1 through in-depth telephone interviews. The findings suggest that asexuality is best conceptualized as a lack of sexual attraction; however, asexuals varied greatly in their experience of sexual response and behavior. Asexuals partnered with sexuals acknowledged having to "negotiate" sexual activity. There were not higher rates of psychopathology among asexuals; however, a subset might fit the criteria for Schizoid Personality Disorder. There was also strong opposition to viewing asexuality as an extreme case of sexual desire disorder. Finally, asexuals were very motivated to liaise with sex researchers to further the scientific study of asexuality.
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A mixed-methods approach is beneficial for elucidating understudied aspects of human sexuality and developing new treatments.
“Given the demonstrated benefits of a mixed-methods approach for elucidating understudied aspects of human sexuality and developing new treatments,44, 45, 46, 47, 48”
From Preliminary Development of a Mindfulness-Based Group Therapy to Expand Couples’ Sexual Intimacy after Prostate Cancer: A Mixed Methods Approach (2021) · cites this paper as [44]
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“, 2000; Bogaert, 2003; Diamond, 2003) and previous asexuality research (Bogaert, 2004; Brotto et al., 2010), and congruent with the description used by the asexual community, we argue that the psychological core element for asexuality is the subjective experience of a lack of sexual attraction.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialHille, J. J., Simmons, M. K., & Sanders, S. A. (2019) · The Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224499.2019.1689378 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Asexuality, Graysexuality, and Demisexuality: Distinctions in Desire, Behavior, and Identity
Copulsky, D., & Hammack, P. L. (2021) · The Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224499.2021.2012113 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“importance of romantic attraction for their social identities (Brotto et al., 2010; Prause & Graham, 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialMitchell, H., & Hunnicutt, G. (2018) · Sexuality & Culture · doi:10.1007/s12119-018-9567-6 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“Historically, asexual individuals were medicalized and pathologized, regarded as immature in sexual development, assumed to have experienced a traumatizing event in their past, and/ or were regarded negatively as a social group (Cerankowski and Milks 2010; Brotto et al. 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialBossio, J. A., Basson, R., Driscoll, M., Correia, S., & Brotto, L. A. (2018) · The Journal of Sexual Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.jsxm.2018.08.013 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Paredes, R. G. (2013) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2013.11.004 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Asexual Identity in a New Zealand National Sample: Demographics, Well-Being, and Health
Greaves, L. M., Barlow, F. K., Huang, Y., Stronge, S., Fraser, G., & Sibley, C. G. (2017) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-017-0977-6 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Asexuality: Few Facts, Many Questions
Houdenhove, E. V., Gijs, L. A. C. L., T'Sjoen, G. G., & Enzlin, P. (2013) · Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy · doi:10.1080/0092623x.2012.751073 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Several authors have provided evidence for the importance of sexual attraction for the description of asexuality (Brotto et al., 2010, Prause & Graham, 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialAsexuality: from pathology to identity and beyond
Gressgård, R. (2013) · Psychology and Sexuality · doi:10.1080/19419899.2013.774166 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
How is asexuality different from hypoactive sexual desire disorder?
Hinderliter, A. C. (2013) · Psychology and Sexuality · doi:10.1080/19419899.2013.774165 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“A number of papers have briefly addressed the relationship between asexuality and HSDD (e.g. Bogaert, 2004; Brotto, Knudson, Inskip, Rhodes, & Erskine, 2010; Cerankowski & Milks, 2010; Prause & Graham, 2007; Scherrer, 2008).”
BackgroundBogaert, A. F. (2013) · International handbooks of population · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5512-3_15 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Lalumière, M. L., Sawatsky, M. L., Dawson, S. J., & Suschinsky, K. D. (2020) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-019-01599-5 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
A Scoping Review of Empirical Asexuality Research in Social Science Literature
Guz, S., Hecht, H. K., Kattari, S. K., Gross, E. B., & Ross, E. (2022) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-022-02307-6 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“A surprising number of studies did not report racial and ethnic identities, and two studies collected information on racial/ethnic identity but did not report it (Brotto & Yule, 2011; Brotto et al., 2010).”
BackgroundPrevalence and Predictors of Sexual Inexperience in Adulthood
Haydon, A. A., Cheng, M. M., Herring, A. H., McRee, A., & Halpern, C. T. (2013) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-013-0164-3 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Schudson, Z. C., Dibble, E. R., & van Anders, S. M. (2017) · Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity · doi:10.1037/sgd0000241 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Family Sexuality Communication for Adolescent Girls on the Autism Spectrum
Holmes, L. G., Strassberg, D. S., & Himle, M. B. (2019) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-019-03904-6 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Asexual Borderlands: Asexual Collegians’ Reflections on Inclusion Under the LGBTQ Umbrella
Mollet, A. L., & Lackman, B. (2018) · Journal of college student development · doi:10.1353/csd.2018.0058 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Asexuality and Autochorissexualism (Identity-Less Sexuality)
Bogaert, A. F. (2012) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-012-9963-1 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Producing facts: Empirical asexuality and the scientific study of sex
Przybyło, E. (2012) · Feminism & Psychology · doi:10.1177/0959353512443668 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Of interest is that when Brotto et al. (2010) made efforts to classify their participants into two genders, 27 of 214 participants refused to provide this information and were subsequently not included in the study (p. 601; also see DeLuzio Chasin, 2011; Hinderliter, 2009).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBrief Report: Asexuality and Young Women on the Autism Spectrum
Bush, H. H., Williams, L. W., & Mendes, E. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04565-6 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Sexual fantasy and masturbation among asexual individuals
Yule, M. A., Brotto, L. A., & Gorzalka, B. B. (2014) · The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality · doi:10.3138/cjhs.2409 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“However, research suggests that a substantial proportion of asexual individuals masturbate at rates similar to (Brotto et al., 2010; Poston & Baumle, 2010) or less than (Bogaert, 2013a) sexual individuals.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialExperiences of minority stress and their impact on suicidality among asexual individuals
Chan, R. C. H., & Leung, J. S. Y. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.01.025 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Höglund, J., Jern, P., Sandnabba, N. K., & Santtila, P. O. (2014) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-013-0240-8 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Yule, M. A., Davison, J., & Brotto, L. A. (2011) · Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy · doi:10.1080/0092623x.2011.582431 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“…responses to the IIEF among 51 asexual men recruited from the Asexuality Visibility and Education Network who completed online questionnaires as a part of a larger study assessing psychological and psychosexual correlates of asexuality (see (Brotto et al., 2010) for a complete description).”
Beyond Heterosexual, Bisexual, and Homosexual: A Diversity in Sexual Identity Expression
Walton, M. T., Lykins, A. D., & Bhullar, N. (2016) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-016-0778-3 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Asexuality and Disability: Strange but Compatible Bedfellows
Lund, E. M., & Johnson, B. A. (2014) · Sexuality and Disability · doi:10.1007/s11195-014-9378-0 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“[8] results support the theory that asexuality often exists in the absence of physiological or”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPersonality and Sexual Orientation: Extension to Asexuality and the HEXACO Model
Bogaert, A. F., Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2017) · The Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224499.2017.1287844 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Although there is some evidence of elevated scores for certain negative emotional states such as anxiety and depression in asexual people (Yule et al., 2013), asexual people also tend to score higher on emotional distance and affective coldness (Brotto et al., 2010; Yule et al., 2013).”
BackgroundJones, C., Hayter, M., & Jomeen, J. (2017) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/jocn.13862 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Patterns of Asexuality in China: Sexual Activity, Sexual and Romantic Attraction, and Sexual Desire
Zheng, L., & Su, Y. (2018) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-018-1158-y · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Svensson, F., Fredlund, C., Svedin, C. G., Priebe, G., & Wadsby, M. (2012) · Nordic Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/08039488.2012.679968 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Development and validation of the Attitudes Towards Asexuals (ATA) scale
Hoffarth, M. R., Drolet, C. E., Hodson, G., & Hafer, C. L. (2015) · Psychology and Sexuality · doi:10.1080/19419899.2015.1050446 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
‘“Asexual” Isn’t Who I Am’: The Politics of Asexuality
Dawson, M., Scott, S., & McDonnell, L. (2018) · Sociological Research Online · doi:10.1177/1360780418757540 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“…‘political literature’ on asexuality seeks to place these complex asexual positions within a wider conception of ‘sexusociety’ (Pryzbolo 2011) as a response to the first studies on asexuality from the human sciences (e.g. Bogaert 2004, Prause and Graham 2007, Brotto et al. 2010, Yule et al. 2014).”
Background‘Can I be a kinky ace?’: How asexual people negotiate their experiences of kinks and fetishes
Winter-Gray, T., & Hayfield, N. (2019) · Psychology and Sexuality · doi:10.1080/19419899.2019.1679866 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Asexual identity development and internalisation: a thematic analysis
Kelleher, S., & Murphy, M. F. (2022) · Sexual & Relationship Therapy · doi:10.1080/14681994.2022.2091127 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“…romantic-identified participants typically sought emotional intimacy (Foster et al., 2019; Haefner, 2011; Kelleher & Murphy, 2022), whereas aromantic participants sought friendships mainly (Brotto et al., 2010; Kelleher & Murphy, 2022; Maxwell, 2017; Scherrer, 2008; Van Houdenhove et al., 2015).”
InfluentialA Positive Approach Toward Asexuality: Some First Steps, But Still a Long Way to Go
Houdenhove, E. V., Enzlin, P., & Gijs, L. A. C. L. (2017) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-016-0921-1 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“,feelingdifferent,identityconfusion, and looking for explanations, identity acceptance) (Brotto et al., 2010; Robbins, Graff Low, & Query, 2016; Van Houdenhove et al., 2015b).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe Sexual Motivation of Male Rats as a Tool in Animal Models of Human Health Disorders
Biały, M., Bogacki-Rychlik, W., Przybylski, J., & Żera, T. (2019) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00257 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“hetero or homosexual interactions (Brotto et al., 2010; Portillo and Paredes, 2019).”
Herbitter, C., Vaughan, M. D., & Pantalone, D. W. (2021) · Sexual & Relationship Therapy · doi:10.1080/14681994.2021.1969547 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“…be defined by the persistent lack of sexual attraction to others, since asexual individuals may experience solitary sexual desire (e.g. Brotto et al., 2010), romantic attraction to others (e.g. Carrigan, 2011), and some degree of sexual response (e.g. Brotto et al., 2010; Brotto & Yule, 2011).”
BackgroundThe ACTIV Study: Acupuncture Treatment in Provoked Vestibulodynia
Curran, S., Brotto, L. A., Fisher, H., Knudson, G., & Cohen, T. (2009) · The Journal of Sexual Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2009.01582.x · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Winer, C., Carroll, M., Yang, Y., Linder, K., & Miles, B. (2022) · Sexualities · doi:10.1177/13634607221085485 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“This de fi nition appears in much of the literature (e.g., Brotto et al., 2010; Jones et al., 2017; Van Houdenhove, Gijs, T ’ Sjoen et al., 2015) and was used by the Asexual Visibility and Education Network (AVEN) until 2021, when they updated their de fi nition to “ those who experience little to no…”
MethodPrzybyło, E., & Cooper, D. (2014) · GLQ A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies · doi:10.1215/10642684-2422683 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Alexithymia, Negative Emotions, and Sexual Behavior in Heterosexual University Students from Italy
Scimeca, G., Bruno, A., Pandolfo, G., Micò, U., Romeo, V. M., Abenavoli, E., Schimmenti, A., Zoccali, R., & Muscatello, M. R. A. (2013) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-012-0006-8 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Collazzoni, A., Ciocca, G., Limoncin, E., Marucci, C., Mollaioli, D., Sante, S. D., Lorenzo, G. D., Niolu, C., Siracusano, A., Maggi, M., et al. (2017) · Sexual Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.sxmr.2017.03.009 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Cross-sectional Brotto et al, 2010 In some cases schizoid personality was more prone to sexual violence, with sexual homicide.”
BackgroundLimoncin, E., Gravina, G. L., Lotti, F., Maseroli, E., Ciocca, G., Corona, G., Maggi, M., Reisman, Y., Balercia, G., Lenzi, A., et al. (2018) · British Journal of Urology · doi:10.1111/bju.14560 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Carvalho, A. C., & Rodrigues, D. L. (2022) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-021-02187-2 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Even though both aromantic and romantic asexual individuals desire emotional intimacy with other people (Brotto et al., 2010; Dawson et al., 2016; Scherrer, 2008), aromantic asexual individuals are not interested in romantic relationships nor physical intimate activity (Carrigan, 2011; Scherrer, 2008).”
BackgroundInfluentialTessler, H. (2023) · Sexualities · doi:10.1177/13634607231197061 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Some asexual individuals expressed strong desire for romantic relationships without sex (Brotto et al., 2010; Van Houdenhove et al., 2015b).”
ASEXUally: On Being an Ally to the Asexual Community
Pinto, S. A. (2014) · Journal of LGBTQ Issues in Counseling · doi:10.1080/15538605.2014.960130 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Asexuality in China’s sexual revolution: Asexual marriage as coping strategy
Wong, D. K. M. (2014) · Sexualities · doi:10.1177/1363460714544812 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Dosch, A., Belayachi, S., & der Linden, M. V. (2015) · The Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224499.2014.1003361 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Walton, M. T., & Bhullar, N. (2018) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-018-1230-7 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Rothblum, E. D., Heimann, K., & Carpenter, K. (2018) · Psychology and Sexuality · doi:10.1080/19419899.2018.1552186 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Kelleher, S., Murphy, M. F., & Su, X. (2022) · Psychology and Sexuality · doi:10.1080/19419899.2022.2057867 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Isolation and ‘erasure’ also appeared as recurring sentiments throughout literature, as asexual individuals reported a sense of difference from their peers (Brotto et al., 2010; Carrigan, 2011; Foster et al., 2019; Mollet, 2020, 2021).”
BackgroundInfluentialUnderstanding asexuality: A sociological review
Winer, C. (2024) · Sociology Compass · doi:10.1111/soc4.13240 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Asexuality special theme issue editorial
Carrigan, M., Gupta, K., & Morrison, T. G. (2013) · Psychology and Sexuality · doi:10.1080/19419899.2013.774160 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Animal Models in Sexual Medicine: The Need and Importance of Studying Sexual Motivation
Ventura-Aquino, E., & Paredes, R. G. (2016) · Sexual Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.sxmr.2016.07.003 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Tessler, H., & Winer, C. (2023) · Sociology Compass · doi:10.1111/soc4.13141 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Human Asexuality: What Do We Know About a Lack of Sexual Attraction?
Yule, M. A., Brotto, L. A., & Gorzalka, B. B. (2017) · Current Sexual Health Reports · doi:10.1007/s11930-017-0100-y · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Asexual competent practices in healthcare: A narrative review
Schneckenburger, S. A., Tam, M., & Ross, L. E. (2023) · Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health · doi:10.1080/19359705.2023.2214528 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Lastly, given the pervasive stigmatization of asexuality, some asexuals participating in research do not answer certain survey questions authentically in fear of making the orientation appear unfavorable (Brotto et al., 2010; Lund & Johnson, 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialRethinking asexuality: A Symbolic Interactionist account
Scott, S., & Dawson, M. (2015) · Sexualities · doi:10.1177/1363460714531273 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“In advocating this approach, we do not dismiss the existing literature on asexuality, but rather seek to complement and expand upon it by highlighting additional dimensions of asexuality.”
BackgroundCatri, F. (2021) · Sexuality & Culture · doi:10.1007/s12119-021-09833-w · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Clark, A. N., & Zimmerman, C. (2022) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-021-02194-3 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Many asexual people identify as having a romantic orientation such as heteroromantic, homoromantic, or biromantic, in comparison with what would be considered a concordant romantic orientation (i.e., aromantic; Brotto et al., 2010; Chasin, 2011; Ginoza et al., 2014).”
BackgroundResultAsexuals negotiate the ‘onslaught of the heteronormative’
Vares, T. (2021) · Sexualities · doi:10.1177/1363460721993389 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“While much of the scientific scholarship has been instrumental in legitimizing asexuality (Bogeart, 2004; Brotto et al., 2010; Prause and Graham, 2007), Ela Przybylo argues that ‘it does so through the reproduction of normative, essentialist and harmful notions about (a)sexuality and difference’…”
BackgroundPatterns of sexual behavior and psychological processes in asexual persons: a systematic review
de Oliveira, L., Carvalho, J., Sarıkaya, S., Ürkmez, A., Salonia, A., Russo, G. I., & the EAU-YAU Men’s Health Working group (2020) · International Journal of Impotence Research · doi:10.1038/s41443-020-0336-3 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“, [2, 5, 10]) less likely to be cisgender [5], and more likely to be LGBTQ [lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer] [28].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialLund, E. M., Thomas, K. B., Sias, C. M., & Bradley, A. R. (2016) · Journal of LGBTQ Issues in Counseling · doi:10.1080/15538605.2016.1233840 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Implicit and Explicit Attitudes Toward Sex and Romance in Asexuals
Bulmer, M., & Izuma, K. (2018) · Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224499.2017.1303438 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Some studies report similar levels of sexual experience in asexuals as in the general population (Prause & Graham, 2007), while others report lower levels of sexual experience or activity (Bogaert, 2004; Brotto et al., 2010).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialParent, M. C., & Ferriter, K. P. (2018) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-018-1171-1 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Another study sampled 214 individuals recruited from an Internet social network site for asexual individuals (Brotto et al., 2010), aiming to examine associations with asexual identity.”
McInroy, L. B., Beaujolais, B., Craig, S. L., & Eaton, A. D. (2021) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-021-02064-y · Cited by 21 · see citing works
- Authors
- Brotto, L. A., Knudson, G., Inskip, J., Rhodes, K., & Erskine, Y.
- Affiliations
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Brotto, Lori A.
- ORCID
- Brotto, Lori A.
- Venue
- Archives of Sexual Behavior
- Published
- 2008-12-11
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 599-618
- ISSN
- 0004-0002 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-2800
- OpenAlex
- W2075322046
- Cited by
- 254
- References
- 68
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 4.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Archives of Sexual Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › LGBTQ Health, Identity, and Policy
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender and Feminist Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Sexual function and dysfunction studies
- Keywords
- asexuality, sexual attraction, sexual behavior, sexual response, masturbation frequency, sexual dysfunction, sexual distress, psychopathology, interpersonal functioning, social withdrawal, alexithymia, schizoid personality disorder, sexual desire disorders
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Affective Symptoms, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Interviews as Topic, Male, Masturbation, Models, Psychological, Terminology as Topic, Personality, Surveys and Questionnaires, Religion and Sex, Schizoid Personality Disorder, Sexual Behavior, Sex Factors, Sexual Dysfunctions, Psychological, Internet
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