Slower Processing Speed in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Meta-analytic Investigation of Time-Based Tasks
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition affecting information processing across domains. The current meta-analysis investigated whether slower processing speed is associated with the ASD neurocognitive profile and whether findings hold across different time-based tasks and stimuli (social vs. nonsocial; linguistic vs. nonlinguistic). Mean RTs of ASD and age-matched neurotypical comparison groups (N = 893 ASD, 1063 neurotypical; mean age ASD group = 17 years) were compared across simple RT, choice RT, and interference control tasks (44 studies, 106 effects) using robust variance estimation meta-analysis. Simple RT tasks required participants to respond to individual stimuli, whereas choice RT tasks required forced-choice responses to two or more stimuli. Interference control tasks required a decision in the context of a distractor or priming stimulus; in an effort to minimize inhibitory demands, we extracted RTs only from baseline and congruent conditions of such tasks. All tasks required nonverbal (motor) responses. The overall effect-size estimate indicated significantly longer mean RTs in ASD groups (g = .35, 95% CI = .16; .54) than comparison groups. Task type moderated effects, with larger estimates drawn from simple RT tasks than interference control tasks. However, across all three task types, ASD groups exhibited significantly longer mean RTs than comparison groups. Stimulus type and age did not moderate effects. Generalized slowing may be a domain-general characteristic of ASD with potential consequences for social, language, and motor development. Assessing processing speed may inform development of interventions to support autistic individuals and their diverse cognitive profiles.
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No evidence of reaction time slowing in autism spectrum disorder
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Attentional status of faces for people with autism spectrum disorder
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The Modality Shift Experiment in Adults and Children with High Functioning Autism
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Efficiency of Lexical Access in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Does Modality Matter?
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Lexical processing in individuals with high-functioning autism and Asperger’s disorder
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Attentional allocation of autism spectrum disorder individuals: Searching for a Face-in-the-Crowd
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Attentional shifts between audition and vision in Autism Spectrum Disorders
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Cognitive Profile in Autism and ADHD: A Meta-Analysis of Performance on the WAIS-IV and WISC-V
Wilson, A. C. (2024) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acad073 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“This is consistent with previous research, as autistic people have been reported to score low on the Coding subtest in older versions of the Wechsler tests (see Takayanagi et al., 2022 for a review) as well as on other measures of speed including simple reaction time (Zapparrata et al., 2022).”
ResultZapparrata, N. M., Brooks, P. J., & Ober, T. M. (2023) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2022_jslhr-22-00221 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive flexibility in autism: How task predictability and sex influence performances
Lacroix, A., Torija, E., Logemann, H. N. A., Baciu, M., Cserjési, R., Dutheil, F., Gomot, M., & Mermillod, M. (2024) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.3281 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Khatiwada, M., Howard, D., Krempley, T., Walton, K. M., Williams, C. S., & Graber, A. D. (2026) · The American Journal of Bioethics · doi:10.1080/15265161.2026.2632012 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Thielen, H., Welkenhuyzen, L., Tuts, N., Vangkilde, S., Lemmens, R., Wibail, A., Lafosse, C., Wajer, I. M. C. H., & Gillebert, C. R. (2024) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2024.108879 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Autistic adults’ inclination to lie in everyday situations
Bagnall, R., Russell, A., Brosnan, M., & Maras, K. (2023) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613231183911 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Processing speed is often slower in autistic children, adolescents and adults than non-autistic controls (Velikonja et al., 2019; Zapparrata et al., 2022; also see Ferraro, 2016) and slower processing speed is associated with difficulties in social communication and interaction (Haigh et al., 2018).”
BackgroundJertberg, R., Begeer, S., Geurts, H. M., Chakrabarti, B., & der Burg, E. V. (2025) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.70015 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Cognitive and Cerebral Aging Research in Autism: A Systematic Review on an Emerging Topic
Besse, M., Morel‐Kohlmeyer, S., Houy‐Durand, E., Prévost, P., Tuller, L., Bouazzaoui, B., Taconnat, L., Capdeville, J., Angel, L., & Gomot, M. (2025) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.70031 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Multisensory Integration of Naturalistic Speech and Gestures in Autistic Adults
Matyjek, M., Kita, S., Cuello, M. T., & Soto‐Faraco, S. (2025) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.70042 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“There is just too much going on there”: Nonverbal communication experiences of autistic adults
Radford, H., Reidinger, B., Kapp, S. K., & de Marchena, A. B. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0325465 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Slowed processing speed has also been demonstrated in autistic people (for a recent meta-analysis, see Zapparrata et al., 2023) [60], including in autistic teens’ and adults’ responses to verbal and nonverbal communication [53,61–63].”
Franca, M., Bolognini, N., & Brysbaert, M. (2023) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-023-00521-x · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Electrophysiological correlates of self-related processing in adults with autism
Amodeo, L., Goris, J., Nijhof, A. D., & Wiersema, J. R. (2024) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-024-01157-0 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“In sum, apart from a general tendency of participants with autism to respond slower (which is line with earlier studies; for a review, see Zapparrata et al., 2022), our findings point out a lack of between-group difference for the self-bias in terms of RTs, replicating Williams et al. (2018).”
Blackhurst, T., Warmelink, L., Roestorf, A., & Hartley, C. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1388726 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Bagnall, R., Russell, A., Brosnan, M., & Maras, K. (2025) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/1068316x.2025.2486411 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Stockwell, K. M., Robertson, Z. S., Lampi, A. J., Steinmann, T., Morgan, E., & Jaswal, V. K. (2024) · Autism in Adulthood · doi:10.1089/aut.2023.0139 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“46,47 In fast-paced social settings, this can have negative consequences.”
Trait and state mathematics anxiety in autistic and non-autistic school-aged boys
Lievore, R., & Mammarella, I. C. (2024) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613241299881 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Autistic individuals often experience delays in processing information (Zapparrata et al., 2023), which can affect their ability to accurately grasp mathematical concepts and execute calculations (Cheng et al., 2022).”
Sensory Processing of Time and Space in Autistic Children
Coelho, F., Rando, B., Salgado, M., & Abreu, A. M. (2025) · Children · doi:10.3390/children12101366 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Longer mean reaction times in autistic individuals for both correct and incorrect responses reflect slower processing speed, which is consistent with previous findings [134], favoring deliberation [129], possibly due to sensory overload [135].”
Jassim, N., McCoy, B., Yip, E. W.-C., Allison, C. L., Baron‐Cohen, S., & Lawson, R. P. (2025) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-025-00654-4 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“A recent meta-analysis has concluded that autistic people are slower to respond across three different categories of task— measuring simple reaction time, choice reaction time, CRT (like the Colour Identification task used here), and interference control time [48].”
Multimodal Interaction in ASD Children: A Usability Study of a Portable Hybrid VR System
Maddalon, L., Minissi, M. E., Cervera‐Torres, S., Amaia Hervas, G., Gómez-García, S., & Alcañíz, M. (2023) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-35681-0_40 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Ellington, E., Parsons, S., & Kovshoff, H. (2026) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-026-14025-z · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Autistic cognitive presentation in later-life
Hayter, A. (2024) · FPOP Bulletin Psychology of Older People · doi:10.53841/bpsfpop.2024.1.167.6 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Ghosn, F., Perea, M., Lizarán, M., Labusch, M., Moreno-Giménez, A., Sahuquillo-Leal, R., Almansa, B., Buesa, J., Campos, L., Pérez, J. A., et al. (2025) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613251323493 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“While Ikuse et al.’s (2018) findings with adult participants are informative, we should note that autistic adults generally show slower RTs than non-autistic adults and can learn to compensate for non-adaptive decision-making behaviors (see Livingston et al., 2019; Zapparrata et al., 2023).”
Centanni, T. M., Gunderson, L. P. K., & Parra, M. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0315883 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Madericova, K., & Talcott, J. B. (2026) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2026.2703682 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
How the ASCENT model can help optimize exposure therapies for Autistic clients
Brook, A. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1569882 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Allow more time to process questions before expecting a response and to answer detailed questions (45, 46, 60, 70, 76 – 83).”
Wong, O. W. H., Lam, A. M. W., Moore, T. M., Ruparel, K., Chan, S. S. M., Gur, R. E., & Gur, R. C. (2025) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617725101653 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Additionally, the CNB-HK assesses cognitive domains critical to ASD: social cognition, a domain linked to the social communication deficit; processing speed, which is often impaired in ASD (Zapparrata et al., 2023); and executive function, which is associated with prognosis (Kenny et al., 2019).”
Peristeri, E., Andrikopoulou, A., Αντωνοπούλου, Κ., Ismirlidou, E., Kotrotsios, A., Kouvava, S., Mavropoulou, S., Mpountakidou, V., Ntiniaropoulou, A., Spanou, V., et al. (2026) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2026.106581 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Sandoval, E. Y. H., Alvis-Gómez, K.-M., Granados, H., & Concha-Mera, A.-G. (2023) · Revista de Investigación e Innovación en Ciencias de la Salud · doi:10.46634/riics.155
Stockwell, K. M., Robertson, Z. S., Lampi, A. J., Steinmann, T., Morgan, E., & Jaswal, V. K. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/3vtpg
der Burg, E. V., Jertberg, R., Geurts, H. M., Chakrabarti, B., & Begeer, S. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.03.13.25323899
Jertberg, R., der Burg, E. V., Geurts, H. M., Chakrabarti, B., & Begeer, S. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-5498932/v1
Neuropsychological assessment with older autistic people: Current knowledge and key considerations
Hayter, A., Walker, V., & Crabtree, A. (2025) · FPOP Bulletin Psychology of Older People · doi:10.53841/bpsfpop.2025.1.171.44
Wileman, T. M., Hackett, D. A., McKay, M. J., Psarakis, M., & Fornusek, C. (2025) · International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching · doi:10.1177/17479541251357946
“Impairments such as autism spectrum disorder can result in slower processing speeds, 32 which may affect a player ’ s ability to quickly understand and react to game situations.”
Systema psyches: A temporal taxonomy of mental phenomena
Kent, L., Doorn, G. H. V., Badcock, P. B., & Klein, B. (2025) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2025.113531 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Cognitive Profile of Autism and Intellectual Disorder in Wechsler’s Scales: Meta-Analysis
Ferreira, G. V., Silva, C. M. D. S., Pereira, A. S. R., Bonasser, L. S. S., Araújo, M. G. D. N., Barros, M. D. O., Damasceno, R. S., NEGREIROS, F., & da Silva, I. C. R. (2026) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe16010012
“…tasks, even in contexts where the success rate and quality of the task are not impaired, which corroborates the hypothesis of stability of WMI and PSI impairments in ASD across different assessments (Rabiee et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2018; Zapata-Fonseca et al., 2018; Zapparrata et al., 2023).”
Developing Metacognition Through LLM-Enhanced Writing Assignments
Gatzia, D. E., & Wood, M. K. (2026) · The American Biology Teacher · doi:10.1525/abt.2026.88.1.12
der Burg, E. V., Jertberg, R., Geurts, H. M., Chakrabarti, B., & Begeer, S. (2026) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-026-03823-y
“In line with our previous individual studies [25, 26], those of other researchers [75], and two meta-analyses [76, 77], these often appear to be RT variables (particularly in emotion recognition tasks) that are typically considered secondary to accuracy/error rates.”
East, C., Parsons, S., & Kovshoff, H. (2026) · International Journal of Research & Method in Education · doi:10.1080/1743727x.2026.2651336
Conventional metaphor processing in autistic adults: a semantic priming experiment
Martín-González, I., Ortega-Andrés, M., & Vicente, A. (2026) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716426100496
“Although even briefer times are recommended in the above-mentioned literature (around 200 ms), the inclusion of autistic participants, who are known to be somewhat slower in RT measures (Zapparrata et al., 2023), led us to keep a SOA of 350 ms for both groups.”
Dickerson, A. E., & Kim, Y. H. (2026) · Occupational Therapy In Health Care · doi:10.1080/07380577.2026.2646495
Shukla, V., Jaswal, V. K., & Arunachalam, S. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.107434
Esprit, J., Youngstrom, E. A., Kim, S. Y., Norris, M., Levine, A., Butter, E. M., & Stephenson, K. G. (2026) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-026-07506-x
Cognitive Aging Patterns in Autism: Parallel, Accelerated, or Safeguarded?
Bessé, M., Gomot, M., Capdeville, J., Prevost, P., Tuller, L., Bouazzaoui, B., Taconnat, L., Houy‐Durand, E., Angel, L., & Morel‐Kohlmeyer, S. (2026) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-026-07478-y
Cooper, C., & Sanoudaki, E. (2026) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2026.2745278
- Authors
- Zapparrata, N. M., Brooks, P. J., & Ober, T. M.
- Affiliations
- The Graduate Center, CUNY (US)
- University of Notre Dame (US)
- Corresponding author
- Zapparrata, Nicole M.
- Venue
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
- Published
- 2022-09-16
- Volume
- 53
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 4618-4640
- ISSN
- 0162-3257 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-3432
- OpenAlex
- W4296036590
- Cited by
- 44
- References
- 149
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 7
- FWCI
- 1.05
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, processing speed, reaction time (psychology), reaction time, interference control, choice reaction time, simple reaction time, neuropsychological profile
- MeSH terms
- Autism Spectrum Disorder, Processing Speed, Adolescent, Cognition, Humans, Language, Time
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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