Cortical activation and synchronization during sentence comprehension in high-functioning autism: Evidence of underconnectivity

May combine two claims.

The autistic group performed the task faster and less accurately.

“The behavioural results suggest that the autistic group performed the task faster and less accurately.”

May combine two claims.

The autistic participants had mean reaction times of 2456 ms for active sentences and 2803 ms for passive sentences.

“The autistic participants had mean reaction times of 2456 and 2803 ms for the active and passive sentences, respectively.”

May combine two claims.

The lower synchronization in the autistic group occurred specifically during sentence comprehension, not during alternation between comprehension and fixation.

“our analysis shows that the activation between two areas is less synchronized in the autistic group specifically at the time that they are doing the sentence comprehension and not in their alternation between comprehension and fixation.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Voxels whose activation levels rise and fall together are functioning in a coordinated way.

May combine two claims.

Error rates were 8% and 13% for the autistic group, slightly but not reliably higher than the control group's 5% and 7%.

“Error rates were 8 and 13% for the autistic group, which is slightly but not reliably higher than those of the control group (5 and 7%).”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Control participants took reliably longer than autistic participants, with mean reaction times of 3061 ms for active and 3447 ms for passive sentences.

“Control participants took reliably longer [F(1,32) = 4.36, P < 0.05] (3061 and 3447 ms).”

May combine two claims.

In the direct group contrast, an area in the left inferior frontal gyrus was reliably less active in the autistic group than in the control group, with no area less active in controls than in the autistic group.

“there was an area in LIFG that was reliably less active in the autistic group than the control group but no area that was less active in the control group than the autistic group [T(32) = 2.74, P < 0.005]”

May combine two claims.

Autistic participants show less activation in LIFG than control, but more activation in LSTG than control.

“Autistic participants show less activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus (LIFG) than the control group, but more activation in the left posterior superior temporal gyrus (LSTG) than the control group.”

May combine two claims.

Examples of functional connectivity between LDLPFC and LIFG in individual participants: an autistic participant with low functional connectivity (r=0.31) and a control participant with high functional connectivity (r=0.79).

“(A) Autistic participant with low functional connectivity, r = 0.31, where the two time series do not closely track each other.(B) Control participant with high functional connectivity, r = 0.79, where the activation time series in the two regions is highly similar.”

May combine two claims.

In the direct group comparison, an area in LSTG was reliably more active in the autistic group than the control group, with no area more active in the control group than the autistic group [T(32)=2.74, P<0.005].

“In this group comparison, there was an area in LSTG that was reliably more active in the autistic group than the control group but no area that was more active in the control group than the autistic group [T(32) = 2.74, P < 0.005].”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Prior behavioral research found that high-functioning autistic individuals have preserved or enhanced single-word reading but impaired processing of grammatically complex verbal instructions.

“previous behavioural studies of the processing of language in high-functioning autistic individuals have reported a preserved or even enhanced ability in the narrower-scope task of reading individual words, coupled with a deficit in the broader-scope task of processing grammatically complex verbal instructions (in the Detroit Test of Oral Directions) (Goldstein et al., 1994)”

• cites Goldstein et al., 1994Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The left inferior frontal gyrus (Broca's area) participates in processes that may integrate sentence comprehension, including syntactic processing, semantic processing, and working memory.

“LIFG (left inferior frontal gyrus) or, more informally, Broca's area, was involved in a number of processes that could play an integrating role in sentence comprehension, such as syntactic processing”

• cites Bookheimer, 2002Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Just et al., 1996Not checked yet

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• cites Fiez, 1997Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

There were no statistically reliable differences between the autistic and control groups in age or IQ.

“There were no statistically reliable differences between the autistic and control participants in age or IQ.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mental imagery during sentence comprehension may be another way to form an integrated representation of sentence meaning.

“The use of mental imagery during sentence comprehension might be yet another way to form an integrated representation of the meaning of a sentence (Just et al., 2004).”

• cites Just et al., 2004Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Two control participants with extremely high functional connectivities were treated as outliers and excluded from the functional connectivity analysis.

“Two control participants with extremely high functional connectivities were considered outliers and were excluded from the functional connectivity analysis.”

May combine two claims.

The findings entail reduced integrative processing, excessive focus on lower-level lexical processing, and reduced synchronization.

“The findings here entail a reduction in the integrative processing and an excessive focus on lower level lexical processing, as well as a reduced level of synchronization.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Voxels whose activation levels rise and fall together are functioning in a coordinated way.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The brain activation data from left-handed participants were similar to their respective groups and were not separated by handedness.

“The brain activation data from these lefthanders were clearly similar to each of their groups and the data were not further separated by handedness.”

May combine two claims.

The 35 cortical regions of interest were defined with high reliability and provided excellent coverage of activation in previous fMRI research.

“These ROIs are defined with high reliability and have provided excellent coverage of activation in previous fMRI research (e.g.Just et al., 2001Just et al., , 2004)).”

• cites Just et al., 2001Not checked yet

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• cites Just et al., 2004Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Compared with controls, autistic participants engage in more extensive processing of individual word meanings, reflected in greater LSTG activation, consistent with hyperlexicality.

“A plausible interpretation of this finding is that, compared with controls, the autistic participants engage in more extensive processing of the meanings of the individual words that comprise a sentence, manifested as more LSTG (Wernicke's areas) activation, which is consistent with their hyperlexicality or unusual strength in processing single words (Goldstein et al., 1994).”

• cites Goldstein et al., 1994Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Maximum head motion did not exceed 0.7 mm.

“Maximum head motion did not exceed 0.7 mm.”

May combine two claims.

The behavioral data are consistent with the interpretation that the autistic group is less proficient at semantically and syntactically integrating sentence words, leading to more errors on complex passive sentences.

“These data are consistent with the interpretation that the group with autism is less proficient at semantically and syntactically integrating the words of a sentence, resulting in more errors for the more complex passive sentences.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Cognitive tasks are served by large-scale cortical networks made of spatially separate computational centres that collaborate extensively for complex processing.

“The view we advocate and test with our fMRI studies is that cognitive tasks are subserved by large-scale cortical networks that consist of spatially separate computational centres that collaborate pervasively to perform complex cognitive processing.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Handedness was assessed with the Lateral Dominance Examination; three autistic and one control participant were left-handed, but all were left-dominant in cortical activation during sentence comprehension.

“Handedness was determined with the Lateral Dominance Examination from the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery (Reitan, 1985), revealing three autistic and one control participants who were left-handed (but who were all nevertheless clearly left-dominant in their cortical activation during sentence comprehension).”

• cites Reitan, 1985Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There are reports of similar lowered functional connectivity in schizophrenia, known as the disconnection hypothesis.

“there are reports of similar lowered functional connectivity in schizophrenia (the disconnection hypothesis) (Lawrie et al., 2002).”

• cites Lawrie et al., 2002Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Underconnectivity theory can explain the social symptoms of autism.

“The underconnectivity framework can account for the social symptoms of autism.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Social interactions place large demands on information integration.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Control participants were matched to autistic participants on age, Full Scale IQ, gender, race, and family-of-origin socioeconomic status.

“The control participants were community volunteers recruited to match the autistic participants on age, Full Scale IQ, gender, race, and family of origin socioeconomic status, as measured by the Hollingshead method.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A small and similar number of participants from the autism and control groups without clear left-lateralization were excluded from further analysis.

“A small and similar numberofparticipantsfromtheautismandcontrolgroupswithoutclear left-lateralization in this task [with lateralization defined as substantially more left-hemisphere activation in IFG, STG and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC)] was excluded from further analysis.”

May combine two claims.

Autism is a cognitive and neurobiological disorder caused by underfunctioning integrative circuitry, producing a deficit in information integration at neural and cognitive levels.

“This hypothesis is part of a broader theoretical proposal that autism is a cognitive and neurobiological disorder of integrative circuits and processes which results in a deficit of integration of information at the neural and cognitive levels.”

• Also stated in: § Underconnectivity theory · plain

  “We propose that autism is a cognitive and neurobiological disorder marked and caused by underfunctioning integrative circuitry that results in a deficit of integration of information at the neural and cognitive levels.”

May combine two claims.

The correlations indicate systematic synchronization in both groups, but the autistic group had lower levels of synchronization.

“The correlations indicate systematicity in the synchronization of both the autistic and control participants, but the levels of synchronization are lower in the autistic group.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Voxels whose activation levels rise and fall together are functioning in a coordinated way.

May combine two claims.

Autism entails preservation and possibly enhancement of individual cortical centres but poorer integration of information at higher levels of processing that require more coordination among cortical centres.

“Specifically, the findings suggest that autism entails preservation and possibly enhancement of the function of individual cortical centres, but at the same time entails poorer integration of information at higher levels of processing that require more coordination among cortical centres.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Theory of mind requires high-level abstraction, which imposes a large demand on high-level integration processes.

“In addition, having a theory of someone else's mind requires a high level abstraction (computing a second world-view besides one's own), which could impose a large demand on high level integration processes on its own.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The rapidly changing dynamics of social interaction can strain integrative processing enough to compromise interaction quality and concurrent cognitive processing.

“The rapidly changing dynamics of social interaction, frequently involving several people, could put enough strain on the integrative processing to compromise both the quality of the interaction as well as concurrent cognitive processing.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The left superior and middle temporal gyrus (Wernicke's area) is associated with lexical processing.

“A second key area in sentence comprehension is the more posterior LSTG (left superior and middle temporal gyrus), or more informally, Wernicke's area, which has particularly been associated with lexical processing (Howard et al., 1992).”

• cites Howard et al., 1992Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

This interpretation can account for encapsulated cognitive strengths in autism, such as hyperlexic word reading, and for poorer performance on tasks like sentence and story comprehension.

“This interpretation can account for the encapsulated cognitive strengths in autism observed in certain focused tasks, such as hyperlexic word reading, which may require relatively less coordination among cortical areas, as well as the poorer performance in tasks like sentence and story comprehension, which require larger-scale integration of cortical function.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The model attributes social abnormalities in autism to a deficit in integrative processing.

“This model attributes social abnormalities in autism to a deficit in integrative processing.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Data from the 1.5 T and 3.0 T scanners were pooled after preliminary analyses indicated similar results.

“Equal numbers of participants from both groups were tested at each field strength, but after preliminary analyses indicated similar results at 1.5 and 3.0 T, the data from the two scanners were pooled.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The autistic group's lower occipito-parietal activation may be consistent with less use of mental imagery of the event described by the sentence.

“The autistic group's lower activation in yet another region, the occipito-parietal area, may also be consistent with this account, if this group engaged in less use of mental imagery of the event the sentence described.”

May combine two claims.

Six participants taking medication, primarily serotonin reuptake inhibitors, had data qualitatively similar to and not statistically different from the autistic participants without medication.

“Six of the participants were taking medication (primarily serotonin reuptake inhibitors) but their data were qualitatively very similar to (and not statistically different from) the presented data of the autistic participants without medication.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Activation across a set of cortical areas should be synchronized, which indicates collaboration among those areas.

“The activation in a set of cortical areas should be synchronized, indicating collaboration among areas.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Abnormalities in autism may arise from integrating perceptual and affective processing of social stimuli with language and theory of mind processing to determine a social partner's intentions.

“Abnormalities may arise in integrating the perceptual and affective processing of social stimuli such as face affect and prosody with language with the concurrent theory of mind processing to determine the social partner's intentions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A SPECT study by Zilbovicius and colleagues demonstrated delayed maturation of frontal circuitry in 4-5 year olds with autism compared with controls.

“Using a SPECT (single photon emission computed tomography) study, Zilbovicius and colleagues demonstrated delayed maturation of frontal circuitry in 4-5 year olds with autism compared with controls.”

• cites Zilbovicius et al., 1995Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The autistic participants met criteria for autism on all three assessments and on both the social and communication domains of the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule.

“The autistic participants met criteria for autism on all three assessments and on both the social and communication domains of the ADOS.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Inter-regional coordination is important when a new overt strategy or plan must be formulated, with the prefrontal executive area flexibly controlling a network of brain regions.

“A third example where inter-regional coordination would be important is one in which a new, overt strategy or plan has to be formulated, such that the prefrontal executive area flexibly controls a network of brain regions.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: A new overt strategy or plan requires the prefrontal executive area to flexibly control a network of brain regions.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

In either case, the outcome is manifested as deficient higher order cognitive processes, reduced fMRI activation of regions performing integrative processing during complex tasks, reduced synchronization, and a local processing approach to cognitive challenges.

“In either case, the outcome is manifested as deficient higher order cognitive processes, reduced fMRI activation of regions performing integrative processing during complex tasks, reduced synchronization, and a local processing approach to cognitive challenges.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Wherever inter-region connectivity and coordination come into play, an underconnected system can manifest impairments, particularly when there is a large load on the system.

“Wherever inter-region connectivity and coordination come into play, an underconnected system can manifest impairments, particularly when there is a large load on the system.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Inter-regional coordination is important when a change or shift in strategy requires control to shift from one network organization to another.

“Another example of a larger role of inter-regional coordination might occur where a change or shift in strategy is required, such that control of processing has to shift from one network organization to another.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: A change or shift in strategy requires control of processing to shift from one network organization to another.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Underconnectivity theory acknowledges a possible conductor role of the prefrontal executive system in some strategically controlled forms of thought.

“One caveat is that even underconnectivity acknowledges the possible conductor role of the prefrontal executive system in some strategically controlled forms of thought.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Brain growth dysregulation findings in autism could be the basis of the altered pattern of fMRI activity and functional underconnectivity.

“At the neurobiological level, a number of findings of brain growth dysregulation in autism have been reported that could be the basis of the altered pattern of fMRI activity and functional underconnectivity.”

• cites Courchesne et al. (2001)Not checked yet

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• cites Courchesne et al. (2003)Not checked yet

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• cites Sparks et al. (2002)Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The altered relationship between volumes of regions suggests compromise in the optimality of connectivity in autistic brains.

“The relevance of such volume difference findings is that 'The altered relationship between volumes of regions . . .suggests compromise in the optimality of connectivity in these autistic brains' (Herbert et al., 2003).”

• cites Herbert et al., 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The cognitive deficit in autism is most likely to arise when the task requires integrative processing or abstraction at a high level, regardless of task domain.

“The cognitive deficit in autism is most likely to arise when the task requires integrative processing or abstraction at a high level, regardless of the domain of the task.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Casanova et al. (2002) reported abnormalities in the unit of vertical organization in the cerebral cortex, with an increase in number and packing density of minicolumns.

“Casanova et al. (2002) has reported abnormalities in the unit of vertical organization in the cerebral cortex in which there is an increase in the number and packing density of the minicolumns.”

• cites Casanova et al. (2002)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Herbert et al. (2003) found the same trend in white matter increase in older autistic boys aged 7-11 years, but found a reduction in cerebral grey matter volume.

“Herbert et al. (2003) found the same trend in white matter increase in older autistic boys, aged 7-11 years, but found a reduction in cerebral grey matter volume.”

• cites Herbert et al. (2003)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Underconnectivity theory postulates that components of the cognitive system correspond to cortical centres with specializations, and in autism these specializations are abnormal, tuned to more autonomous and less collaborative inter-centre processing.

“By contrast, underconnectivity theory postulates that the components of the cognitive system correspond to cortical centres, each with a set of specializations, and furthermore, that in autism, the specializations are abnormal in that they are tuned to more autonomous and less collaborative inter-centre processing.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Underfunctioning or disorganization of white matter tracts could accompany underfunctioning of inter-regional communication processes that use these tracts.

“The underfunctioning or disorganization of white matter tracts could be accompanied by underfunctioning of the inter-regional communication processes that make use of these tracts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The causality of the deficit could be in the opposite direction, such that centres that inherently develop more self-reliant algorithms might also develop weaker connections to other centres.

“The causality of the deficit could also be in the opposite direction, such that centres that inherently develop more selfreliant algorithms might also develop weaker connections to other centres.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

A novel task requires brain regions to dynamically configure into an appropriate network, and poorer connectivity in autism impairs this dynamic ability.

“A novel task requires the underpinning brain regions to dynamically configure themselves into an appropriate network, and the poorer connectivity in autism impairs this dynamic ability.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: A novel task requires brain regions to dynamically configure into an appropriate network.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Sparks et al. (2002) found an increase in total brain volume in 3-4-year-old children with ASD relative to typically developing and developmentally delayed children, but grey and white matter volumes were not reported.

“Sparks et al. (2002) similarly found an increase in total brain volume in 3-4-year-old children with autism spectrum disorder relative to typically developing and developmentally delayed children but measurements of grey and white matter volumes were not reported.”

• cites Sparks et al. (2002)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Herbert et al. (2003) found regional differences in volume relationships: cerebral cortex and hippocampus/amygdala as one (reduced), white matter as a second (increased), and basal ganglia, cerebellum and diencephalons as a third (no change).

“They also found regional differences in volume relationships with cerebral cortex and hippocampus and amygdala as one (reduced in size), white matter as a second (increased in size), and basal ganglia, cerebellum and diencephalons as a third (no change).”

• cites Herbert et al. (2003)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The most visible behavioural consequence of altered brain activation and functional underconnectivity is a swath of cognitive and social deficits in processes that especially depend on inter-regional coordination and integration.

“The most visible behavioural consequence of the altered brain activation and functional underconnectivity is a swath of cognitive and social deficits in those processes that especially depend on inter-regional coordination and integration.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Abnormal activity observed in fMRI is located in cortex and is presumed to reflect alterations in neuronal function.

“The abnormal activity observed in fMRI is located in cortex and is presumed to reflect alterations in neuronal function.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Abnormal activity observed in fMRI is located in cortex and reflects alterations in neuronal function.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In cases where a person with autism attains excellent cognitive successes, underconnectivity theory predicts normal or higher functional connectivity than controls, with less reliance on frontal integrating centres.

“In such cases, underconnectivity theory would predict normal or higher functional connectivity than for control participants, and with less reliance on frontal, integrating centres.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: A person with autism can attain excellent and even extraordinary cognitive successes.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Abnormal specialization of neocortical processing centres could be due to excessive preservation of elementary circuitry (intra-centre disturbance) combined with a deficiency in development of integrative circuitry (intercentre disturbance).

“The abnormal specialization of the neocortical processing centres could be due to excessive preservation of elementary circuitry (an intra-centre disturbance) in combination with a deficiency in the development of integrative circuitry (an intercentre disturbance).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Maturational processes for elementary and integrative circuitry normally develop in tandem.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Underconnectivity theory enriches Minshew's previous statements with new fMRI findings, linking information processing abnormalities to brain connectivity itself.

“Underconnectivity theory enriches Minshew's previous statements of the theory with the new findings from fMRI, thus linking the information processing abnormalities to a specific neurobiological phenomenon, the brain connectivity itself.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The volume increase in autism affected cerebral grey matter (12%), cerebral white matter (18%) and cerebellar white matter (39%).

“The volume increase affected cerebral grey matter (12%), cerebral white matter (18%) and cerebellar white matter (39%).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Minshew et al. (1997) attributed autism to a fundamental abnormality in handling information in high-level tasks, particularly those requiring abstraction.

“This model attributed the disorder to a fundamental abnormality in the handling of information in high level tasks, particularly those requiring abstraction.”

• cites Minshew et al., 1997Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Underconnectivity is presumed to foster development of a less integrated, more autonomous set of processing centres.

“In other words, the underconnectivity is presumed to foster the development of a less integrated, more autonomous set of processing centres.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

A processing centre with inadequate connectivity to another centre with which it would normally collaborate might develop processing algorithms less dependent on collaborative input and become hyperspecialized.

“A processing centre that has inadequate connectivity to another centre with which it would normally collaborate might develop processing algorithms that are less dependent on collaborative input and hence might become 'hyperspecialized'.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Underconnectivity theory predicts weak coherence among ongoing processes due to poorer communication and collaboration among them.

“Note that underconnectivity also predicts weak coherence among ongoing processes, by virtue of poorer communication and collaboration among them.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A compensatory strategy in autism under such circumstances is reversion to a previously learned rule-based system.

“(The compensatory strategy that often arises in autism under such circumstances is a reversion to relying on a previously learned rule-based system.)”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Aylward et al. (2002) found that larger brain volume in children with autism eventually normalized when brain growth reached a plateau, whereas growth in normal controls continued.

“Aylward et al. (2002), studying 8-47 year olds, found that larger brain volume of the children with autism eventually 'normalized' when their brain growth reached a plateau, whereas the growth in the normal controls continued.”

• cites Aylward et al. (2002)Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The impairment in social interaction in autism may be an outcome of a lack of integration of different types of information at a high level (e.g., facial expression, personal intent, social games).

“The impairment in social interaction in autism may, for example, be an outcome of a lack of integration of different types of information at a high level (e.g.facial expression, personal intent, social games, and so on).”

May combine two claims.

These alterations have been observed in autism with language processing in this study, face processing (Schultz et al., 2000) and theory of mind studies (Castelli et al., 2002), representing multiple areas of cortex and reliance on interconnecting regions.

“These alterations have now been observed in autism with language processing in this study, face processing (Schultz et al., 2000) and theory of mind studies (Castelli et al., 2002) representing multiple areas of cortex and reliance on interconnecting regions.”

• cites Schultz et al., 2000Not checked yet

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• cites Castelli et al., 2002Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This construal can account for observations that autism can entail mastery of detail, narrow attentional focus, and difficulty in higher-level abstraction of many types of information.

“This construal can account for the observations that autism can entail mastery of detail, narrow attentional focus, and difficulty in higher-level abstraction of many types of information.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Underconnectivity theory predicts that any facet of psychological function dependent on coordination or integration of brain regions is susceptible to disruption, particularly when computational demand of coordination is large.

“The theory predicts that any facet of psychological function that is dependent on the coordination or integration of brain regions is susceptible to disruption, particularly when the computational demand of the coordination is large.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In grey matter, there may be simultaneous disruption of local and distant circuit organization in highly specialized grey matter, leading to abnormal specializations.

“In the grey matter, there may simultaneously be a disruption of local and distant circuit organization in highly specialized grey matter, leading to abnormal specializations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Courchesne et al. (2001) found that by 2-4 years of age, total brain volume was larger than normal in MRI scans of autistic boys.

“Subsequently, Courchesne et al. (2001) found that by 2-4 years of age, total brain volume was larger than normal in the MRI scans of autistic boys.”

• cites Courchesne et al. (2001)Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Courchesne et al. (2003) reported below average head circumference at birth and two phases of accelerated brain growth, one between 1 and 2 months and a second between 6 and 14 months.

“[In a recent study of head circumferences rather than brain volume, Courchesne et al. (2003) reported a below average head circumference at birth and two phases of accelerated brain growth one between 1 and 2 months of age and a second between 6 and 14 months of age.]”

• cites Courchesne et al. (2003)Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Underconnectivity theory predicts impairments in motor function, memory, expressive nonverbal language, and virtually all cortically mediated functions.

“Underconnectivity theory goes on to predict impairments in motor function, memory, and expressive nonverbal language (such as hand gestures and facial expressions), and to virtually all cortically mediated functions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The proximal biological cause(s) of altered brain activation and functional underconnectivity could be in grey or white matter or both.

“The proximal biological cause(s) of the altered levels of brain activation and functional underconnectivity could be either in grey or white matter or both.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Tasks requiring a large contribution from integrating frontal regions might be particularly susceptible in autism.

“Tasks that require a large contribution from integrating, frontal regions might be particularly susceptible in autism.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Minshew et al. (1989) proposed that autism was a non-focal, systemic disorder of the brain affecting a wide range of high-level tasks, including motor function, memory, language and abstraction, which all made a high demand on information processing resources.

“Moreover, Minshew et al. (1989) proposed that autism was a non-focal, systemic disorder of the brain that affected a wide range of high level tasks, including motor function, memory, language and abstraction, which all made a high demand on information processing resources.”

• cites Minshew et al. (1989)Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Underconnectivity can explain difficulty in novel cognitive tasks where inter-regional coordination is critical.

“The underconnectivity could explain the difficulty in novel cognitive tasks wherever inter-regional coordination is critical.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: A novel task requires brain regions to dynamically configure into an appropriate network.