Affect and Arousal in Insomnia: Through a Lens of Neuroimaging Studies
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Purpose of Review: Previous research has struggled with identifying clear-cut, objective counterparts to subjective distress in insomnia. Approaching this discrepancy with a focus on hyperarousal and dysfunctional affective processes, studies examining brain structures and neural networks involved in affect and arousal are reviewed and conclusions for an updated understanding of insomnia are drawn. Recent Findings: Recent studies found that amygdala reactivity, morphometry and adaptation in insomnia are altered, indicating that processing of negative stimuli is intensified and more lasting. Also, patients with insomnia show aberrant connectivity in the default mode network (DMN) and the salience network (SN), which is associated with subjective sleep disturbances, hyperarousal, maladaptive emotion regulation and disturbed integration of emotional states. The limbic circuit is assumed to play a crucial role in enhanced recall of negative experiences. Summary: There is reason to consider insomnia as a disorder of affect and arousal. Dysregulation of the limbic circuit might perpetuate impaired connectivity in the DMN and the SN. However, the interplay between the networks is yet to be researched.
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Individuals with insomnia show moderately increased cortisol levels, with the greatest elevations in the evening and first half of the night.
“Meta-analytic evidence confirms that individuals with insomnia show moderately increased cortisol levels, with the greatest elevations observed in the evening and first half of the night, precisely when sleep initiation should occur [23,24].”
From Pre-Sleep Anxiety: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Approaches in Clinical Practice. (2026) · cites this paper as [24]
The Hyperarousal Theory section says increased arousal in patients with insomnia has been associated with increased cortisol secretion (page unavailable). It does not give a moderate effect size, identify the evening or first half of the night as the period of greatest elevation, or describe the cortisol finding as meta-analytic. (LLM, conf=0.88)
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“…neuroimaging mechanisms of acupuncture for ID. Sixth, because insomnia is also closely related to the default mode network, salience network [78], and cognitive control network [102], the synergy between brain networks can be analyzed from the perspective of large-scale brain networks in…”
BackgroundSleep medicine: Practice, challenges and new frontiers
Parrino, L., Halász, P., Szűcs, A., THOMAS, R. J., Azzi, N., Rausa, F., Pizzarotti, S., Zilioli, A., Misirocchi, F., & Mutti, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2022.966659 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Samea, F., Mortazavi, N., Reimann, G. M., Ebneabbasi, A., Zarei, M., Khazaie, H., Goldstein‐Piekarski, A. N., Spiegelhalder, K., Baglioni, C., Sepehry, A. A., et al. (2025) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2025.102111 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationHolub, F., Petri, R., Schiel, J. E., Feige, B., Rutter, M. K., Tamm, S., Riemann, D. W., Kyle, S. D., & Spiegelhalder, K. (2022) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.13790 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“…large-scale brain network that is involved in self-generated thought (that is, internally directed and stimulus-independent), which is more active during a resting state compared with conditions requiring externally directed attention (Andrews-Hanna, Smallwood, & Spreng, 2014; Schiel et al., 2020).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationThe interplay between insomnia symptoms and Alzheimer’s disease across three main brain networks
Elberse, J. D., Saberi, A., Ahmadi, R., Changizi, M., Bi, H., Hoffstaedter, F., Mander, B. A., Eickhoff, S. B., Tahmasian, M., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2024) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsae145 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Although within-SN hyperconnectivity has been implicated in many sleep studies as a correlate of emo - tional hyperarousal, many studies may have inadequately controlled depression and anxiety levels [50, 66, 67].”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe role of ascending arousal network in patients with chronic insomnia disorder
Gong, L., He, K., Fang, C., Deng, Z., Cheng, K., Zhang, X., Zhou, W., Ou, J., Wang, J., Zhang, B., et al. (2022) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.26072 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Using the resting-state functional connectivity (FC) approach, it has been observed that the insomnia-related hyperarousal state is particularly pronounced among the broadly cortical networks, including the default mode network (DMN), salience network (SN), sensorimotor network (SMN), dorsal attention network (DAN), a…”
BackgroundInfluentialKillgore, W. D. S., Jankowski, S., Henderson-Arredondo, K., Lucas, D. A., Patel, S. I., Hildebrand, L. L., Huskey, A., & Dailey, N. S. (2023) · NeuroReport · doi:10.1097/wnr.0000000000001949 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
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Puyvelde, M. V., & Maîresse, O. (2021) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2021.08.006 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
The central regulatory effects of acupuncture in treating primary insomnia: a review
Yao, L., Liu, Y., Li, M., Zheng, H., Sun, M., He, M., Zhong, Z., Ma, S., Huang, H., & Wang, H. (2024) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2024.1406485 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
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“The DLPFC is a cardinal node of the executive control network (ECN) and has been strongly linked with working memory and cognitive control of thought, emotion, and behavior [51].”
Afshani, M., Mahmoudi-Aznaveh, A., Noori, K., Rostampour, M., Zarei, M., Spiegelhalder, K., Khazaie, H., & Tahmasian, M. (2023) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci13040672 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Moreover, several studies have found different structural and functional brain alterations between ID patients and healthy subjects [2,8,9].”
BackgroundSelf-citationHypogyrification in Generalized Anxiety Disorder and Associated with Insomnia Symptoms
Zhang, T., Xie, X., Li, Q., Zhang, L., Chen, Y., Ji, G., Hou, Q., Li, T., Zhu, C., Tian, Y., et al. (2022) · Nature and Science of Sleep · doi:10.2147/nss.s358763 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“As a core node of the salience network, insula has been reported to coordinate internetwork connectivity, including the frontoparietal control network (FPN).(9) Functional neuroimaging literature demonstrated decreased functional connectivity of the insula with the OFC in patients with insomnia, which negatively corre…”
BackgroundThe Future of Insomnia Research—There's Still Work to Be Done
Dressle, R. J., Spiegelhalder, K., Schiel, J. E., Benz, F., Johann, A. F., Feige, B., Jernelöv, S., Perlis, M. L., & Riemann, D. W. (2025) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.70091 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
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“As an important part of the limbic system, the amygdala plays a critical role in initiating and processing adaptive behavioral responses to threats and arousal [59, 60].”
BackgroundIncreased functional connectivity within the salience network in patients with insomnia
Yin, X., Jiang, T., Song, Z., Zhu, L., Wang, G. G., & Guo, J. (2024) · Sleep And Breathing · doi:10.1007/s11325-024-03002-7 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Neural mechanisms of attentional bias to emotional faces in patients with chronic insomnia disorder
Zhao, G., Yu, L., Chen, P., Zhu, K., Yang, L., Lin, W., Luo, Y., Dou, Z., Xu, H., Zhang, P., et al. (2023) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2023.11.008 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
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Mory, L.-N., Fernandes, D. D. O., Mancini, C., Mouthon, M., & Chabwine, J. N. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11123296 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“As brain pathways and structures regulating the affective dimension of pain are also implicated in anxiety [58] and sleep disorders [55], they probably constitute one important basis for the relationship between the affective pain dimension and both insomnia and anxiety.”
BackgroundThe contribution of transdiagnostic vulnerability factors in patients with chronic insomnia
Habibi Asgarabad, M., Doos Ali Vand, H., Salehi Yegaei, P., Hooman, F., Ahmadi, R., Baglioni, C., & Moradi, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1162729 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Wu, F., Li, X., Guo, Y., Yan, L.-Z., He, R.-J., & Xu, Y. (2024) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2024.116236 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Abnormal sensory processing cortex in insomnia disorder: a degree centrality study
Wang, H., Li, H., Liu, Z., Li, C., Luo, Z., Chen, W., Shang, M., Liu, H., Fatemeh, N. N., Zhou, Y., et al. (2025) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-024-00958-8 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“It is plausible to speculate that normal cooperation among brain regions is critical for both sleep quality and mood regulation, and any disruptions in interactions within the SN or between the SN and other networks (Schiel et al., 2020) may potentially disturb this delicate balance.”
Wu, X., Duan, H., Wang, Y., She, S., Hu, Y., & He, B. (2025) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2025.1703747 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
An investigation into the definition of arousal and its cognitive neurophysiological basis
Di, Z. O. U., 刺激, & Fushun, W. A. N. G. (2022) · Advances in Psychological Science · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2022.02020 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Su, A.-X., Ma, Z.-J., Li, Z., Li, X., Xia, L., Ge, Y.-J., & Chen, G.-H. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1360305 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Macroneuroimaging fi ndings in insomnia patients have shown that structural changes in brain regions associated with memory formation (6).”
BackgroundSleep State Misperception in Insomnia: The Role of Sleep Instability and Emotional Dysregulation
Cini, E., Bolengo, F., Fasiello, E., Berra, F., Gorgoni, M., Sforza, M., Casoni, F. M., Proserpio, P., Castronovo, V., Gennaro, L. D., et al. (2025) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci15101078 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…in producing SSM. Emotion regulation difficulties—particularly poor emotional acceptance—amplify hyperarousal: individuals who perceive negative emotions as intolerable engage in nocturnal hypervigilance, which elevates cognitive arousal and in turn increases cortical arousal density [47–50].”
Kim, S. Y., Lee, H. Y., Lee, H. Y., Jeon, J. E., Park, C. W., Shin, J., Seo, M. C., Jeon, S., Kim, S. J., & Lee, Y. J. (2023) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsad237 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Hildebrand, L. L., Huskey, A., Dailey, N. S., Jankowski, S., Henderson-Arredondo, K., Trapani, C., Patel, S. I., Chen, Y.-C., Chou, Y., & Killgore, W. D. S. (2024) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/51212 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Patients with insomnia often show abnormalities in the functioning of the DMN that are consistent with the hyperarousal hypothesis [23-25].”
ResultPharmacologic Approaches to Insomnia and Other Sleep Disorders in Children
Pavkovic, I. M., & Kothare, S. V. (2022) · Current Treatment Options in Neurology · doi:10.1007/s11940-022-00712-9 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Hyperarousal, heightened response to stress, and disturbed regulation of emotions likely result from these complex alterations in connectivity [21].”
BackgroundYou, S., Lv, T., Qin, R., Hu, Z., Ke, Z., Yao, W., Zhao, H., & Bai, F. (2023) · Clinical Interventions in Aging · doi:10.2147/cia.s416992 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
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“In a resting-state functional MRI study, increased FC of the insula was observed in individuals with insomnia [35] and in patients suffering from depression with insomnia complaints [40]; this increase in FC was associated with cognitive deficits [41].”
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Editorial: The Interplay Between Sleep and Emotion: What Role Do Cognitive Processes Play?
Cellini, N., & Lombardo, C. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.612498 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Weihs, A., Frenzel, S., Bi, H., Schiel, J. E., Afshani, M., Bülow, R., Ewert, R., Fietze, I., Hoffstaedter, F., Jahanshad, N., et al. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2203610/v1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationLv, Z., Zhang, H., Fan, Y., Wei, Y., Zhang, Z., Yuan, H., Zhu, L., & Lei, X. (2025) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2025.109071 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Wang, H., Li, H., Kou, J., Fatemeh, N. N., Peng, Y., Qian, Y., Li, C., Chen, W., Zhou, Y., Zhang, M., et al. (2025) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2025.09.018 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Wang, R., He, Y., Myachykov, A., Leong, C., Gao, W., Zhang, C., He, Y., & Yuan, Z. (2026) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2026.121926 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Jiang, T., Yin, X., Zhu, L., Wang, G. G., Zhang, F., & Guo, J. (2024) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-024-00949-9 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“The PCC is a crucial region for self-referential processing, inter-oception, and emotion regulation (Schiel et al., 2020).”
Wang, S., Li, B., Xu, M., Chen, C., Liu, Z., Ji, Y., Qian, S., Liu, K., & Sun, G. (2025) · Cognitive Neurodynamics · doi:10.1007/s11571-024-10206-w · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Dorsal brain activity reflects the severity of menopausal symptoms
Nakamura, K., Hoshi, H., Kobayashi, M., Fukasawa, K., Ichikawa, S., & Shigihara, Y. (2024) · Menopause The Journal of The North American Menopause Society · doi:10.1097/gme.0000000000002347 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“60,61 Unhealthy arousal con-trol is associated with insomnia, 62 which is a major symptom of menopause.”
BackgroundTan, B., Xu, X., Liu, Q., Chen, R., Chen, Q., Qin, Y., Li, M., Wang, X., Yang, P., Jin, Y., et al. (2024) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2024.109903 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Li, T., Han, Y., Yan, H., Lv, D., Yao, P., Chen, L., Yuan, Y., Zhao, J., Guo, W., Guo, Z., et al. (2025) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2025.104563 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Zhang, Z., Liu, Y., Zhao, B., Fu, H., Wang, J., Zhang, M., Zhang, Y., Hu, L., & Zhang, X. (2025) · Journal of Ethnopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.jep.2025.120631 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Bionic sleep therapy for refractory insomnia: a case report and literature review
Xiao, Q., Zhu, S.-Y., Ma, Y., Zhao, P.-C., Chen, H., Bao, Y.-J., Lei, J.-M., Wang, L. L., Zhou, H., Ma, R.-X., et al. (2026) · BMC Anesthesiology · doi:10.1186/s12871-026-03812-0 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“This persistent, systemic state of heightened arousal shares overlapping neural circuits and neurochemical substrates with anxiety and depressive disorders, such as hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis hyperactivity and enhanced amygdala reactivity [43, 44].”
Wang, Z. C., Qian, H., Shen, M., Huo, J., Dai, N., Fu, Q.-N., & Sui, B. (2025) · Acta Radiologica · doi:10.1177/02841851241310398 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Hu, S., Zuo, X., Yu, D., Huang, J., Zhu, S., Li, X., Wu, M., Liu, D., Xiao, J., Zhang, M., et al. (2025) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-025-07379-x · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“These consensus features are primarily localized in key regions, including the cingulate cortex, MTG, caudate nucleus, and middle frontal gyrus, all of which constitute critical components of the DMN [67, 68].”
Sleep and Sleep–Wake Disorders
Abbott, S. M., Fiala, J. A., Mundt, J. M., Murray, J. M., & Standlee, J. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-51366-5_62 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Is Insomnia a Brain Disorder Arising From Aberrant Brain Structure, Brain Function, or Both?
Lee, Y. J. (2022) · Chronobiology in Medicine · doi:10.33069/cim.2022.0014 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Effects of mPFC-rTMS in chronic Insomnia: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study
Sun, J., Li, P., Yi, Y., Xu, W., Zhang, G., Zhang, B., Ding, K., Luo, S., & Zhou, J. (2025) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2025.106704 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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“Emerging evidence from a recent brain network study has established a signi fi cant association between the presence of anxiety symptoms and reduced cortical volumes in key regions of the default mode network (DMN) in affected patients (15).”
InfluentialWu, S., Li, Y., Chen, S., Chen, X., Wei, W., Zhang, C., Li, P., Huang, Y.-Y., Liu, F., Wing, Y. K., et al. (2025) · Behavioral Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1080/15402002.2025.2591682 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Finally, insomnia, emotional dysregulation, and SIB are all associated with disruptions in cortico-limbic emotion and impulse regulation network, which includes the prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala (Brañas et al., 2021; Schiel et al., 2020).”
Zeng, Z., Jiang, J., Wang, M., Huang, Y., Maes, M. H. J., & Li, J. (2026) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s581502 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“23,40 This shared failure in dynamic network reconfiguration underlies persistent hyperarousal states in ID 21,22 and may contribute to cue reactivity and loss of control in PIU.”
InfluentialKothare, S. V., & Pavkovic, I. M. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-10494-7_13 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Sleep and Sleep–Wake Disorders
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Poor dream recall associates with Alzheimer’s disease biomarkers and dementia riskPreprint
Lipnicki, D. M., Valentí, M., Valeriano-Lorenzo, E., Vella, A. S., Zea‐Sevilla, M. A., Ricciardi, M., Frades, B., Martinez, M., Wagner, S., Sachdev, P. S., et al. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.09.16.25335946 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Pre-Sleep Anxiety: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Approaches in Clinical Practice.
Song, S., Irfan, M., Tahir, Z., Garrison, K. A., & Ziskind, S. (2026) · Current Sleep Medicine Reports · doi:10.1007/s40675-026-00370-2
The Contribution of Transdiagnostic Vulnerability Factors in Patients with Chronic InsomniaPreprint
Vand, H. D. A., Hooman, F., Yegaei, P. S., Ahmadi, R., & Habibi, M. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2241964/v1
Insomnia in the Elderly and Its Treatment
Özgören, M., & Öniz, A. (2023) · Healthy ageing and longevity · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-22468-3_23
Samea, F., Mortazavi, N., Reimann, G. M., Ebneabbasi, A., Zarei, M., Khazaie, H., Goldstein‐Piekarski, A. N., Spiegelhalder, K., Baglioni, C., Sepehry, A. A., et al. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gmceb
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Advancements in neuroimaging research on the mechanisms of brain and mental disorders
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Disrupted gray matter structural covariance networks in chronic insomnia disorder
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“Moreover, existing research has demonstrated that excessive DMN activation is associated with emotional dysregulation and enhanced retrieval of negative memories (40).”
Liu, G., & Liang, R. (2026) · Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Medical Research · doi:10.62177/apjcmr.v2i2.1219
“In particular, decreased activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, abbreviated as DLPFC, may weaken executive control and emotional inhibition, whereas hyperactivation of the amygdala and insula is closely associated with heightened emotional arousal and anxiety [11] .”
Neural processing of emotional stimuli before and after cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia
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“Therefore, when individuals experience diff iculties regulating their emotions, pre-sleep cognitive arousal may intensify further, creating a self-reinforcing cycle of negative thoughts and wakefulness [ 19, 20].”
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Role of the Amygdala in the Complex Relationship Between Sleep and Anxiety
Grzybowski, F., Kaczmarski, P., Strzelecki, D., Wysokiński, A., Białasiewicz, P., & Gabryelska, A. (2026) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms27177814
“The presented findings show that the function, reactivity, and morphology of the amygdala are disrupted in insomnia, suggesting that the impact of negative stimuli is increased and prolonged in this sleep disorder [162].”
Feige, B., Dressle, R. J., & Riemann, D. W. (2026) · Current Sleep Medicine Reports · doi:10.1007/s40675-026-00396-6
“A review by Schiel et al. [87] also focused on the important aspects of affect and arousal in insomnia, finding evidence for aber - rant connectivity in the default mode and salience networks as well as limbic system dysregulation.”
Self-citationPoststroke sleep phenotypes and executive dysfunction: toward a sleep-network-executive framework
Xu, J., Zhang, Y., Lin, D., Yan, X., Xie, N., Si, S., & ShuMing, Y. (2026) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2026.1978796
- Authors
- Schiel, J. E., Holub, F., Petri, R., Leerssen, J., Tamm, S., Tahmasian, M., Riemann, D., & Spiegelhalder, K.
- Affiliations
- University of Freiburg (DE)
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience (NL)
- Karolinska Institutet (SE)
- Shahid Beheshti University (IR)
- Corresponding author
- Schiel, Julian E.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Current Psychiatry Reports
- Published
- 2020-07-13
- Volume
- 22
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 44-44
- ISSN
- 1523-3812 (ISSN-L)
- 1535-1645
- PMC
- PMC7359160
- OpenAlex
- W3041749849
- Cited by
- 86
- References
- 72
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 1.28
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Current Psychiatry Reports (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- KNAW Research Portal (The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- KNAW research portal (Royal Academy of Art and Sciences (KNAW)) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- VU Research Portal (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Informationszentrum Lebenswissenschaften (ZB MED) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Universitätsklinikum Freiburg
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and related disorders
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Functional Brain Connectivity Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Keywords
- insomnia, hyperarousal, affect, amygdala reactivity, default mode network, salience network, limbic circuits, emotion regulation, artificial neural networks
- MeSH terms
- Arousal, Brain, Humans, Sleep Initiation and Maintenance Disorders, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Neuroimaging
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