Additive effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and compassionate imagery on self-compassion in recreational users of ecstasy
Open accessAbstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethylamphetamine (MDMA;‘ecstasy’) produces prosocial subjective effects that may extend to affiliative feelings towards the self . Behavioural techniques can produce similar self-directed affiliation. For example, compassionate imagery (CI) and ecstasy reduce self-criticism and increase self-compassion to a similar extent, with the effects of CI enhanced in the presence of ecstasy. Here, we examine self-compassion and self-criticism in recreational users who consumed chemically verified MDMA in a within-subjects crossover study. In a naturalistic setting, polydrug-using participants performed a self-focused CI exercise on two occasions separated by ≥6 days: once having consumed self-sourced MDMA and once not. Effects on state self-criticism, self-compassion and emotional empathy were assessed before and after MDMA use (or over an extended baseline period on the occasion that MDMA was not consumed) and reassessed after CI. In participants ( n = 20; 8 women) whose ecstasy contained MDMA and no other drug, CI and MDMA appeared to separately increase emotional empathy (to critical facial expressions) and self-compassion. The effects of CI and MDMA on self-compassion also appeared to be additive. Establishing the observed effects in controlled studies will be critical for determining the combined utility of these approaches in fostering adaptive self-attitudes in a therapeutic context.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Two experimental studies with ecstasy demonstrated that ecstasy increases feelings of self-compassion and reduces self-criticism.
“With respect to the former, two experimental studies with ecstasy (presumably containing MDMA in one study and tested to confirm MDMA in the other) demonstrated that ecstasy increases feelings of self-compassion and reduces self-criticism (108, 109).”
From MDMA-Assisted Therapy as a Means to Alter Affective, Cognitive, Behavioral, and Neurological Systems Underlying Social Dysfunction in Social Anxiety Disorder (2021) · cites this paper as [109]
The Results (Effects on Self-Criticism and Self-Compassion; page unavailable) report increased self-compassion after MDMA use in this study of recreational users whose ecstasy was chemically verified. They do not clearly demonstrate that MDMA reduced self-criticism: the Time × Session interaction was not significant, and the Discussion describes those effects as less clear-cut. The paper also reports a previous ecstasy study, but this source itself is one of the two studies, not both. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Measuring emotion: The self-assessment manikin and the semantic differential
Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (1994) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0005-7916(94)90063-9 · Cited by 9,538 · see citing works
PsychoPy—Psychophysics software in Python
Peirce, J. W. (2007) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2006.11.017 · Cited by 4,728 · see citing works
The NimStim set of facial expressions: Judgments from untrained research participants.
Tottenham, N., Tanaka, J. W., Leon, A. C., McCarry, T., Nurse, M., Hare, T. A., Marcus, D. J., Westerlund, A., Casey, B., & Nelson, C. (2009) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2008.05.006 · Cited by 3,454 · see citing works
Effects of sexual dimorphism on facial attractiveness
Perrett, D. I., Lee, K. J., Penton‐Voak, I. S., Rowland, D., Yoshikawa, S., Burt, D. M., Henzi, S. P., Castles, D. L., & Akamatsu, S. (1998) · Nature · doi:10.1038/29772 · Cited by 1,331 · see citing works
Working models of attachment: Implications for explanation, emotion, and behavior.
Collins, N. L. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.71.4.810 · Cited by 1,243 · see citing works
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction
Anderson, M. (2014) · European Union regulations | European Encyclopedia of law · Cited by 1,214 · see citing works
On the Validity of the Beck Depression Inventory
Richter, P., Werner, J., Heerlein, A., Kraus, A., & Sauer, H. (1998) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000066239 · Cited by 1,113 · see citing works
Working models of attachment: implications for explanation, emotion, and behavior
Collins, N. L. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.4.810 · Cited by 996 · see citing works
Dziobek, I., Rogers, K., Fleck, S., Bahnemann, M., Heekeren, H. R., Wolf, O. T., & Convit, A. (2008) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0486-x · Cited by 951 · see citing works
Facial shape and judgements of female attractiveness
Perrett, D. I., May, K. A., & Yoshikawa, S. (1994) · Nature · doi:10.1038/368239a0 · Cited by 858 · see citing works
Prototyping and Transforming Facial Textures for Perception Research
Tiddeman, B. P., Burt, M., & Perrett, D. (2001) · IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications · doi:10.1109/38.946630 · Cited by 838 · see citing works
Drug, Set, and Setting: The Basis for Controlled Intoxicant Use
Zinberg, N. E. (1984) · Padova Digital University Archive (Ateneo di Padova) · Cited by 670 · see citing works
Urine Drug Screening: Practical Guide for Clinicians
Moeller, K. E., Lee, K. C., & Kissack, J. C. (2008) · Mayo Clinic Proceedings · doi:10.4065/83.1.66 · Cited by 545 · see citing works
Cannabidiol inhibits THC-elicited paranoid symptoms and hippocampal-dependent memory impairment
Englund, A., Morrison, P. D., Nottage, J. F., Hague, D., Kane, F., Bonaccorso, S., Stone, J. M., Reichenberg, A., Brenneisen, R., Holt, D., et al. (2012) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881112460109 · Cited by 462 · see citing works
Mithoefer, M. C., Wagner, M. T., Mithoefer, A. T., Jerome, L., Martin, S. F., Yazar‐Klosinski, B., Michel, Y., Brewerton, T. D., & Doblin, R. (2012) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881112456611 · Cited by 376 · see citing works
Effects of Schedule I drug laws on neuroscience research and treatment innovation
Nutt, D., King, L. A., & Nichols, D. E. (2013) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn3530 · Cited by 338 · see citing works
An Introduction to Compassion Focused Therapy in Cognitive Behavior Therapy
Gilbert, P. (2010) · International Journal of Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1521/ijct.2010.3.2.97 · Cited by 335 · see citing works
Morgan, C. J. A., Schafer, G., Freeman, T. P., & Curran, H. V. (2010) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.110.077503 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
Empathy deficits and trait emotional intelligence in psychopathy and Machiavellianism
Ali, F., Amorim, I. S., & Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2009) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.06.016 · Cited by 297 · see citing works
Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Mitra, R., Franks, L., Richter, A., & Rockliff, H. (2008) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760801999461 · Cited by 297 · see citing works
Fears of compassion and happiness in relation to alexithymia, mindfulness, and self‐criticism
Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Gibbons, L., Chotai, S., Duarte, J., & Matos, M. (2012) · Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8341.2011.02046.x · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Affective and physiological responses to the suffering of others: Compassion and vagal activity.
Stellar, J. E., Cohen, A., Oveis, C., & Keltner, D. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000010 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
Novel psychopharmacological therapies for psychiatric disorders: psilocybin and MDMA
Mithoefer, M. C., Grob, C. S., & Brewerton, T. D. (2016) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(15)00576-3 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
Oxytocin and human social behavior.
Campbell, A. (2010) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868310363594 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Kelly, A. C., Zuroff, D. C., & Shapira, L. B. (2008) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-008-9202-1 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Sprengelmeyer, R., Perrett, D. I., Fagan, E. C., Cornwell, R. E., Lobmaier, J. S., Sprengelmeyer, A., Aasheim, H. B. M., Black, I., Cameron, L., Crow, S. J., et al. (2009) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02272.x · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Kamilar-Britt, P., & Bedi, G. (2015) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.08.016 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Embodying Compassion: A Virtual Reality Paradigm for Overcoming Excessive Self-Criticism
Falconer, C. J., Slater, M., Rovira, A., King, J. A., Gilbert, P., Antley, A., & Brewin, C. R. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0111933 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Tancer, M., & Johanson, C.-E. (2003) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/s0376-8716(03)00172-8 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Mennin, D. S., & Fresco, D. M. (2013) · Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice · doi:10.1111/cpsp.12038 · Cited by 149 · cited 1× · see citing works
“These observations contribute to our understanding of neurobiological mechanisms for building resilience and improving well-being, but also point to strategies for overcoming the pernicious negative emotional/cognitive states that characterise a variety of psychopathologies (Mennin and Fresco 2013).”
BackgroundEffects of intranasal oxytocin on 'compassion focused imagery'
Rockliff, H., Karl, A., McEwan, K., Gilbert, J., Matos, M., & Gilbert, P. (2011) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0023861 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Seara‐Cardoso, A., Neumann, C. S., Roiser, J. P., McCrory, E. J. P., & Viding, E. M. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.08.029 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Cognitive and subjective effects of mephedrone and factors influencing use of a ‘new legal high’
Freeman, T. P., Morgan, C. J. A., Vaughn‐Jones, J., Hussain, N., Karimi, K., & Curran, H. V. (2012) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03719.x · Cited by 117 · see citing works
The varieties of ecstatic experience: an exploration of the subjective experiences of ecstasy
Sumnall, H. R., Cole, J. C., & Jerome, L. (2006) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881106060764 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
MDMA-assisted therapy: A new treatment model for social anxiety in autistic adults
Danforth, A. L., Struble, C. M., Yazar‐Klosinski, B., & Grob, C. S. (2015) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2015.03.011 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Wolff, K., Tsapakis, E. M., Winstock, A. R., Hartley, D., Holt, D., Forsling, M. L., & Aitchison, K. J. (2006) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881106061514 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Davidson, R. J., Lutz, A., & Ricard, M. (2014) · Scientific American · doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1114-38 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Demonstrating mood repair with a situation‐based measure of self‐compassion and self‐criticism
Falconer, C., King, J., & Brewin, C. (2015) · Psychology and psychotherapy · doi:10.1111/papt.12056 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Linking the pharmacological content of ecstasy tablets to the subjective experiences of drug users
Brunt, T. M., Koeter, M. W. J., Niesink, R. J. M., & van den Brink, W. (2011) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-011-2529-4 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Mind-Body Medicine Therapies for a Range of Depression Severity: A Systematic Review
D'Silva, S., Poscablo, C., Habousha, R., Kogan, M., & Kligler, B. (2012) · Psychosomatics · doi:10.1016/j.psym.2012.04.006 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Urinary and plasma oxytocin changes in response to MDMA or intranasal oxytocin administration
Francis, S. M., Kirkpatrick, M. G., de Wit, H., & Jacob, S. (2016) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.08.011 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Kamboj, S. K., Kilford, E. J., Minchin, S., Moss, A., Lawn, W., Das, R. K., Falconer, C. J., Gilbert, P., Curran, H. V., & Freeman, T. P. (2015) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881115587143 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Self-citationCommon variant in OXTR predicts growth in positive emotions from loving-kindness training
Isgett, S. F., Algoe, S. B., Boulton, A. J., Way, B. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2016) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.08.010 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Oxytocin receptor gene variation predicts subjective responses to MDMA
Bershad, A. K., Weafer, J. J., Kirkpatrick, M. G., Wardle, M. C., Miller, M. A., & de Wit, H. (2016) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2016.1143026 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
New Age Seekers: MDMA Use as an Adjunct to Spiritual Pursuit
Watson, L., & Beck, J. (1991) · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs · doi:10.1080/02791072.1991.10471587 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Neurocognitive performance following acute mephedrone administration, with and without alcohol
Perna, E. B. D. S. F., Papaseit, E., Pérez‐Mañá, C., Mateus, J., Theunissen, E. L., Kuypers, K. P. C., de la Torre, R., Farré, M., & Ramaekers, J. G. (2016) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881116662635 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Clark, C. M., Frye, C. G., Wardle, M. C., Norman, G. J., & de Wit, H. (2014) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.12327 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Bringing together pharmacological and psychological approaches to mental health research
Moss, A., Curran, H. V., Bloomfield, M., Kamboj, S. K., Blackwell, S. E., & Freeman, T. P. (2016) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(16)30080-3 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Wolfson, P. E., Andries, J., Feduccia, A. A., Jerome, L., Wang, J. B., Williams, E., Carlin, S. C., Sola, E., Hamilton, S., Yazar-Klosinski, B., et al. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-75706-1 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Zeifman, R. J., & Wagner, A. C. (2020) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2019.11.001 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Mindfulness meditation and psychedelics: potential synergies and commonalities
Holas, P., & Kamińska, J. (2023) · Pharmacological Reports · doi:10.1007/s43440-023-00551-8 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Some observational studies have suggested that MDMA may enhance emotional empathy and self-compassion [117], the effects that are observed followed compassion-based meditation interventions [118].”
BackgroundStauffer, C. S., Brown, M. R., Adams, D., Cassity, M., & Sevelius, J. M. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.932605 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Oeri, H. E. (2020) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881120920420 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
The role of self-compassion and self-criticism in binge eating behaviour
Serpell, L., Amey, R., & Kamboj, S. K. (2019) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2019.104470 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Zeifman, R. J., Kettner, H., Pagni, B. A., Mallard, A. J., Roberts, D. E., Erritzøe, D., Ross, S., & Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-40856-5 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Kava drinking in traditional settings: Towards understanding effects on cognitive function
Aporosa, S., Atkins, M. J., & Brunton, R. (2020) · Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental · doi:10.1002/hup.2725 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Luoma, J. B., Shahar, B., Lear, M. K., Pilecki, B. C., & Wagner, A. (2021) · Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental · doi:10.1002/hup.2824 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Esaki, H., Sasaki, Y., Nishitani, N., Kamada, H., Mukai, S., Ohshima, Y., Nakada, S., Ni, X., Deyama, S., & Kaneda, K. (2023) · European Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2023.175653 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Maner, S., Morris, P. G., & Flewitt, B. I. (2022) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2801 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Social anxiety and MDMA-assisted therapy investigation: a novel clinical trial protocol
Lear, M. K., Smith, S. M., Pilecki, B. C., Stauffer, C. S., & Luoma, J. B. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1083354 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Luoma, J., & Lear, M. K. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.733893 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Psychotherapy-supported MDMA treatment for PTSD
Krystal, J. H., Kelmendi, B., & Petrakis, I. L. (2021) · Cell Reports Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.xcrm.2021.100378 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Thomas, E. M., Freeman, T. P., Poplutz, P., Howden, K., Hindocha, C., Bloomfield, M., & Kamboj, S. K. (2021) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881121991835 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Aporosa, S., Atkins, M. J., & Leov, J. (2021) · Research Commons (University of Waikato) · doi:10.26021/10642 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Kamboj, S. K., Peniket, M., & Simeonov, L. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0282861 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Albert, A. E., & Back, A. L. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1529427 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
MDMA-Assisted Group Therapy for PTSD: Development of a Novel Protocol
Stauffer, C. S., Bouleh, P., & Anderson, B. T. (2025) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2025.03.001 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Thurgur, H., Sessa, B., Higbed, L., O’Brien, S., Durant, C. F., Wilson, S. J., Szigeti, B., Morgan, C. J. A., & Nutt, D. J. (2025) · Alcohol and Alcoholism · doi:10.1093/alcalc/agaf031 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Anderson, K., Elf, P., & Isham, A. (2024) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2024.104571 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Mystical Love: The Universal Solvent
Laughlin, C. D., & Takahashi, M. (2020) · Anthropology of Consciousness · doi:10.1111/anoc.12120 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Improving road safety and health: Understanding kava’s impact on driver fitness
Aporosa, S. (2018) · Research Commons (University of Waikato) · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Aicher, H., Wicki, I. A., Meling, D., Mueller, M. J., Dornbierer, D., & Scheidegger, M. (2025) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811251344689 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Kamboj, S. K., Peniket, M., Norman, J., Robshaw, R., Soni-Tricker, A., Falconer, C., Gilbert, P., & Simeonov, L. (2025) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291725101013 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Demographic and health characteristics of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine users (MDMA, ecstasy)
Więckiewicz, G., Danel, D. P., Piegza, M. J., Gorczyca, P. W., & Pudło, R. (2021) · Psychiatria Polska · doi:10.12740/pp/onlinefirst/134317 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Burić, I., Wrzesien, M., Milojičić, J., Ridderinkhof, A., de Bruin, E. I., & Bögels, S. M. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1385799 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
McAlpine, R. G., Utanğaç, M., Kuc, J., Pankhurst, H., Sellers, A., Kraft, D., Litchy, A., Gupta, N. E., Timmermann, C., Kamboj, S. K., et al. (2026) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-026-02957-w · Cited by 5 · see citing works
- Authors
- Kamboj, S. K., Walldén, Y. S. E., Falconer, C. J., Alotaibi, M. R., Blagbrough, I. S., Husbands, S. M., & Freeman, T. P.
- Affiliations
- University College London (GB)
- University of Bath (GB)
- King's College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Kamboj, Sunjeev K.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Mindfulness
- Published
- 2017-11-04
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 1134-1145
- ISSN
- 1868-8527 (ISSN-L)
- 1868-8535
- PMC
- PMC6061231
- OpenAlex
- W2765997654
- Cited by
- 28
- References
- 48
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 2.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Mindfulness (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- government of Saudi Arabia
- Society for the Study of Addiction
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychedelics and Drug Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
- Keywords
- MDMA, ecstasy, self-compassion, self-criticism, affective empathy, recreational drug use, polydrug use, prosocial effects, additive effects
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
