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Social comparison, social attractiveness and evolution: How might they be related?
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“After all, social comparisons did not emerge with SNSs; it is a phylogenetically ancient ability that has likely been instrumental to navigating social hierarchies throughout human evolutionary history (Benítez and Brosnan, 2020; Gilbert et al., 1995).”
From The associations between social comparison on social media and young adults’ mental health (2025) · cites this paper as Gilbert et al., 1995
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Social comparison: The end of a theory and the emergence of a field
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“Even more so, according to Gilbert, Price, and Allan (1995), the need to compare the self with others is found in many other species as well, and has evolved as a very adaptive mechanism for sizing up one’s competitors.”
BackgroundGILBERT, P., & ALLAN, S. (1998) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291798006710 · Cited by 972
“To date measures of social comparison (Allan & Gilbert, 1995) and submissive behaviour (Gilbert & Allan, 1994; Gilbert et al. 1995b, Allan & Gilbert, 1997) have been developed and found satisfactory.”
BackgroundSelf-citationPride, personality, and the evolutionary foundations of human social status
Cheng, J. T., Tracy, J. L., & Henrich, J. (2010) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.02.004 · Cited by 783
Evolution and the capacity for commitment
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Assimilative and Contrastive Emotional Reactions to Upward and Downward Social Comparisons
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“Social comparisons are a cross-cultural phenomenon that emerge in early childhood and have deep evolutionary roots [48,49].”
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Evolution, Social Roles, and the Differences in Shame and Guilt
Gilbert, P. (2003) · Social research · doi:10.1353/sor.2003.0013 · Cited by 335
“This ability has (perhaps) evolved from an earlier one by which animals evaluate their relative fighting ability before engaging in a contest for resources and for social rank (Gilbert, Price, and Allan, 1995).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe psychological and emotional impact of acne and the effect of treatment with isotretinoin
KELLETT, & Gawkrodger (1999) · British Journal of Dermatology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2133.1999.02662.x · Cited by 305
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“Presumably, in comparison with the fitness benefits of displaying appeasement in cases of subordinance, defection, or norm violation, the costs of the shame display in situations of prestige defeat have not sufficed to eliminate this feature of the trait.”
BackgroundFerreira, C., Pinto‐Gouveia, J., & Duarte, C. (2013) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2013.01.005 · Cited by 294
“Thus, for women, body image often becomes a central self-evaluative dimension (e.g., Balcetis, Cole, Chelberg, & Alicke, 2012; Gilbert, Price, & Allan, 1995) and controlling it (e.g., by dieting) may emerge as a strategy to compete for social advantages (e.g., being accepted and valued by others;…”
Gilbert, P. (2001) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/s0193-953x(05)70260-4 · Cited by 370
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Natural selection and the elusiveness of happiness
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“In short, the connections between modern life and compromised well-being may be far more complex than simple increased exposure to situations that foster upwards social comparison (Gilbert et al. 1995).”
BackgroundAge and Gender Differences in Mate Selection Criteria for Various Involvement Levels
Buunk, B. P., Dijkstra, P., Fetchenhauer, D., & Kenrick, D. T. (2002) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/1475-6811.00018 · Cited by 249
“As noted by Gilbert, Price, and Allan (1995) , humans have developed mechanisms to assess their status in the group, in particular their own attractiveness in comparison to same sex others and, by implication, in comparison to opposite sex others.”
The Psychology of Social Status
Cheng, J. T., Tracy, J. L., & Anderson, C. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0867-7 · Cited by 235
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“Individuals use social comparison information to form costeffective strategies that guide intrasexual competitive behaviors (Gilbert et al., 1995; Reaves, 2011).”
BackgroundSelf‐harm in a mixed clinical population: The roles of self‐criticism, shame, and social rank
Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Irons, C., Bhundia, R., Christie, R., Broomhead, C., & Rockliff, H. (2010) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466509x479771 · Cited by 214
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Buunk, A. P., & Gibbons, F. X. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511584329.003 · Cited by 200
Popularity in Early Adolescence: Prosocial and Antisocial Subtypes
de Bruyn, E. H., & Cillessen, A. H. N. (2006) · Journal of Adolescent Research · doi:10.1177/0743558406293966 · Cited by 188
“Gilbert et al. (1995) distinguished the two by typifying the former as a threat display (i.e., the individual gains power through aggression) and the latter an attractive display (the individual gains power through attractive personal qualities).”
BackgroundCheng, J. T., & Tracy, J. L. (2014) · The Psychology of Social Status · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0867-7_1 · Cited by 187
Narcissism and the pursuit of status
Zeigler‐Hill, V., Vrabel, J. K., McCabe, G. A., Cosby, C. A., Traeder, C. K., Hobbs, K. A., & Southard, A. C. (2018) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12392 · Cited by 193
The effect of shame and shame memories on paranoid ideation and social anxiety
Matos, M., Pinto‐Gouveia, J., & Gilbert, P. (2013) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.1766 · Cited by 178
Self-citationWetherall, K., Robb, K. A., & O’Connor, R. C. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.12.045 · Cited by 175
“The SRT literature primarily uses the social comparison scale (SCS; Allan and Gilbert, 1995) that asks individuals to rank themselves compared to others on 11 bipolar constructs using a semantic di ff erential approach, thereby ranking themselves from a more negative attribute (e.g., feeling left…”
BackgroundMethodNew directions in social comparison research
Buunk, B. P., & Mussweiler, T. (2001) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.77 · Cited by 174
Social psychological theories of disordered eating in college women: Review and integration
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Differential social comparison processes in women with and without eating disorder symptoms.
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Looking Back: Exploring the Psychology of Queuing and the Effect of the Number of People Behind
Zhou, R., & Soman, D. (2003) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/346247 · Cited by 138
“" An extensive body of research in social psychology focuses on the universal human tendency to learn about and improve oneself by making social comparisons with others (Festinger 1954; Gilbert, Price, and Allan 1995; Taylor, Wayment, and Carillo 1995).”
BackgroundDuarte, C., Pinto‐Gouveia, J., Ferreira, C., & Batista, D. (2014) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.1925 · Cited by 138
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“Gilbert and co-workers (e.g., Gilbert, 1997; Gilbert et al., 1995) embrace this argument in their notion of Social Attention Holding Power (SAHP).”
BackgroundPinto‐Gouveia, J., Ferreira, C., & Duarte, C. (2012) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.1820 · Cited by 127
(2000) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1104_02 · Cited by 138
“…competence, there is a lot of evidence that the experience of a raise in status as well as a permanent high status are accompanied by a high well-being, whereas a loss of status as well as a long lasting low status are detrimental to well-being (Gilbert, 1988; Gilbert et al., 1995; Kemper, 1990).”
BackgroundAn Evolutionary‐Psychological Approach to Self‐esteem: Multiple Domains and Multiple Functions
Kirkpatrick, L. A., & Ellis, B. J. (2003) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470998557.ch16 · Cited by 119
Self-Esteem, Social Comparison, and Facebook Use
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How Self-Assessments Can Guide Human Mating Decisions
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“The adaptive value of a decision to fight or not rests on accurate comparative evaluation (‘‘Is the aggressor stronger than me?’’) rather than absolute evaluation (‘‘How strong is the aggressor?’’; Gilbert et al., 1995).”
BackgroundInfluentialCosmetic Surgery as Intrasexual Competition: The Mediating Role of Social Comparison
Arnocky, S. A., & Piché, T. (2014) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2014.510132 · Cited by 105
“Social comparisons may be an important correlate of intrasexual competition (Buunk & Fisher, 2009) in that they allow individuals to determine what others will find attractive, and where they stand on those dimensions (Gilbert et al., 1995).”
BackgroundSocial rank, shame and anger in primary and secondary psychopaths
Morrison, D., & Gilbert, P. (2001) · Journal of Forensic Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/09585180110056867 · Cited by 92
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“Social attention and acceptance have broad relevance and form a core part of people's self-esteem ( Gilbert et al., 1995; Vignoles, Regalia, Manzi, Golledge, & Scabini, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialMahadevan, N., Gregg, A. P., Sedikides, C., & de Waal-Andrews, W. G. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00334 · Cited by 116
“Similarly, in social life, people generally adopt the strategy of engaging in contests they expect to win and avoiding contests they expect to lose (Sloman and Price, 1987; Gilbert et al., 1995).”
Ferreira, C., Pinto‐Gouveia, J., & Duarte, C. (2011) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.769 · Cited by 83
“It is recognized that social comparison is a fundamental process for human beings, enabling the knowledge of one’s relative social rank (Buunk & Gibbons, 2007; Festinger, 1954; Gilbert et al., 1995).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialIncome and Income Inequality as Social Determinants of Health: Do Social Comparisons Play a Role?
Präg, P., Mills, M. C., & Wittek, R. P. M. (2013) · European Sociological Review · doi:10.1093/esr/jct035 · Cited by 78
Gilbert, P. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.582090 · Cited by 77
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Self-citationAdolescent Hierarchy Formation and the Social Competition Theory of Depression
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“, 2002) and their social attractiveness (Gilbert et al., 1995) in order to decide”
BackgroundEvolutionary Psychology and Mental Health
Nesse, R. M. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470939376.ch32 · Cited by 76
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Online social games: The effect of social comparison elements on continuance behaviour
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Analyzing Free-standing Conversational Groups
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Social comparison of fitness social media postings by fitness app users
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Social media and its relationship with mood, self‐esteem and paranoia in psychosis
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“Researchers working in the field of social comparisons and psychopathology have proposed that perceived SR is associated with mood and self-esteem (32, 33) and it has previously been reported that negative social comparisons on social media websites are associated with depression and low self-esteem (34–37).”
BackgroundSocial anxiety disorder and shame cognitions in psychosis
Michail, M., & Birchwood, M. J. (2012) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291712001146 · Cited by 81
Heterogeneity of Girls’ Consensual Popularity: Academic and Interpersonal Behavioral Profiles
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“We suggest that Popular Disengaged girls entertained Resource Holding Power, and Popular Studious girls entertained Social Attention Holding Power (Gilbert et al., 1995).”
BackgroundBehavioral and self-reported aggression as a function of domain-specific self-esteem
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Self-citationPinto‐Gouveia, J., Carvalho, S. A., Palmeira, L., Castilho, P., Duarte, C., Ferreira, C., Duarte, J., Cunha, M. I. V. A., Matos, M., & Costa, J. (2017) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2072 · Cited by 69
Envy Mediates the Link Between Social Comparison and Appearance Enhancement in Women
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“…often compare themselves to others in order to assess their relative rank on important abilities or characteristics (including physical appearance) and determine which traits are worth investing effort into improving (e.g., Collins 1996; Festinger 1954; Gilbert et al. 1995; Mendes et al. 2001).”
BackgroundVeale, D. M., & Gilbert, P. (2013) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2013.11.005 · Cited by 63
Self-citationMate Value and Self-Esteem: Evidence from Eight Cultural Groups
Goodwin, R., Marshall, T., Fülöp, M., Adonu, J., Spiewak, S., Neto, F., & Hernandez Plaza, S. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036106 · Cited by 53
“Other characteristics, such as aggressiveness, may be attractive only to moderate degrees [46].”
Mawson, A., Berry, K., Murray, C. D., & Hayward, M. (2010) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1348/147608310x524883 · Cited by 51
Why do women want to be beautiful? A qualitative study proposing a new “human beauty values” concept
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Zeigler‐Hill, V., & Myers, E. M. (2011) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/147470491100900202 · Cited by 48
“This proposed extension is consistent with the work of other researchers linking self-esteem with domains such as dominance (Barkow, 1989; Gilbert, Price, and Allan, 1995), prestige (Henrich and GilWhite, 2001), and mate value (Brase and Guy, 2004; Dawkins, 1982; Kenrick, Groth, Trost, and Sadalla,…”
ResultTerritory, Rank and Mental Health: The History of an Idea
Price, J. S., Gardner, R., Wilson, D. R., Sloman, L., Rohde, P., & Erickson, M. (2007) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/147470490700500305 · Cited by 46
“Paul Gilbert, a professor of clinical psychology in Derby, UK, carried out surveys on depressed patients documenting that they do indeed show characteristics associated with low hierarchical rank (Gilbert, 1992, 1993, Gilbert and Allan, 1994, Gilbert, Price and Allen, 1995 ); he also clarified how social competition i…”
BackgroundSelf-citationUpward and downward social comparisons can decrease prosocial behavior
Yip, J. J., & Kelly, A. E. (2013) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2013.01039.x · Cited by 46
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Dominance-Popularity Status, Behavior, and the Emergence of Sexual Activity in Young Adolescents
de Bruyn, E. D., Cillessen, A., & Weisfeld, G. (2012) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/147470491201000209 · Cited by 39
“We suggest that highly dominant-popular adolescent boys have Resource Holding Power (RHP), whereas highly dominant-popular adolescent girls have some RHP, but rely also and perhaps more heavily on Social Attention Holding Power (SAHP; Gilbert, Price, and Allan, 1995).”
BackgroundToward an Enlightenment in Social Comparison Theory
Buunk, B. P., & Gibbons, F. X. (2000) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-4237-7_22 · Cited by 44
Buunk, B. P., & Dijkstra, P. (2001) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2001.tb00047.x · Cited by 44
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Self-citationEntrapment and Defeat Perceptions in Depressive Symptomatology: Through an Evolutionary Approach
Carvalho, S., Pinto‐Gouveia, J., Pimentel, P., Maia, D., Gilbert, P., & Mota-Pereira, J. (2013) · Psychiatry · doi:10.1521/psyc.2013.76.1.53 · Cited by 45
Self-citationDoes other people's education make us less happy?
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Depression: A Biopsychosocial, Integrative, and Evolutionary Approach
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What do all personality disorders have in common? Ineffectiveness and uncooperativeness
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Science, narcissism and the quest for visibility
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Gamification Aspects of Fitness Apps: Implications of mHealth for Physical Activities
Kim, H.-M., Cho, I., & Kim, M. (2022) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2022.2073322 · Cited by 40
“According to social comparison theory, people compare themselves to others to evaluate self-abilities, self-atti-tudes, and self-status (Festinger, 1954; Gilbert et al., 1995).”
BackgroundBuunk, B. P., & Brenninkmeijer, V. (2001) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.76 · Cited by 40
Sun, S. (2021) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.2021.1476 · Cited by 38
Object of Desire Self-Consciousness Theory
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Gender Differences in Object of Desire Self-Consciousness Sexual Fantasies
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The relevance of social comparison processes for prevention and health care
Buunk, B. P., Gibbons, F. X., & Visser, A. P. (2002) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/s0738-3991(02)00054-x · Cited by 38
The Price of Envy—An Experimental Investigation of Spiteful Behavior
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Metadata
- Authors
- Gilbert, P., Price, J., & Allan, S.
- Venue
- New Ideas in Psychology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1995-07
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 149-165
- ISSN
- 0732-118X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2079575968
- Cited by
- 322
- References
- 77
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 15
- FWCI
- 0.61
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- figshare.com
- Licence
- Locations
- New Ideas in Psychology (publishedVersion)
- eCite Digital Repository (University of Tasmania) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Keywords
- social comparison, social attractiveness, intrasexual selection, reciprocal exchange, resource holding potential, self-concept, self-esteem, phylogeny, human evolution
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