The DOI matches its Crossref record; 41 of the 41 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 52 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
A behavioral scientist looks at the science of adolescent brain development
Open accessAbstract
2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. In a remarkably short period of time – about 10 years, by my estimation – the developmental neuroscience of adolescence has matured from a field in its infancy to one that is now approaching its own adolescence. The papers gathered in this special issue, from some of the world’s leading scholars of adolescent brain development, showcase the richness, depth, and breadth of understanding that now characterizes this area of developmental science. As in any field that is barely a decade old, there remain many mysteries, contradictions, and unknowns. But given the short period of time during which systematic study has been ongoing, there is also a surprising degree of consistency, consensus, and replication. In this brief commentary, I focus on several broad themes that cut across the articles in this collection, both with respect to what we know (or at least have a reasonably good understanding of) and with respect to what we do not know. As a non-neuroscientist with no formal training in the study of brain development, it is beyond my expertise to delve deeply into the technical details of the research described by the contributors to this anthology. Nor is such an analysis necessary; the papers are uniformly clear and written at a level that will both interest other neuroscientists and edify behavioral scientists like myself, who increasingly find themselves needing to know about the neural underpinnings of the psychological and social phenomena they study. My focus in this commentary will be mainly on what these new studies reveal that will be of special interest to those who study adolescent behavioral development. Let me begin with what will surely strike many readers as obvious, but which needs to be said strenuously and incontrovertibly. Taken together, the contributions to this issue demonstrate conclusively that the adolescent’s brain is different from both the child’s brain and the adult’s brain. It is different with respect to both morphology and function, and at the levels of brain structures, regions, circuits, and systems. It is different with respect to grey matter (Gogtay & Thompson, this issue), white matter (Paus, this issue), structural connectivity (Schmithorst & Yuan, this issue; White et al., this issue), and neurotransmission (Doremus-Fitzwater et al., this issue; Wahlstrom et al., this issue). It is different in ways that are revealed in studies of sleep (Feinberg & Campbell, this issue), electrophysiology (Segalowitz et al., this issue), functional imaging (Luna et al., this issue; Somerville et al., this issue), pharmacological challenge (Wahlstrom et al., this issue), and stress reactivity (McCormick et al., this issue). It is different in ways that are consistent with studies of juvenile rodents (Doremus-Fitzwater et al., this issue) and non-human primates (Dahl & Forbes, this issue), and among males as well as females (Lenroot & Giedd, this issue). And it is different in ways that are consistent with the observations of behavioral scientists who study both normative development (Sebastian et al., this issue; Dahl & Forbes, this issue) and developmental psychopathology (Gogtay & Thompson, this issue). I state the obvious here to preemptively respond the claims of some non-neuroscientists that the notion of ‘‘the adolescent brain” is some sort of myth (Epstein, 2007; Males, 2009). As this collection of papers makes eminently clear, the fact that there are significant changes in the brain during adolescence is no longer debatable – if indeed it ever was. Indeed, it appears that the brain changes characteristic of adolescence are among the most dramatic and important to occur during the human lifespan. Whether neurobiological differences between adolescents and adults should inform how society treats young people is open for debate, but whether such differences are real is not (Steinberg, 2009). That said, it is important to note, as several of the contributors to this issue have stated, that ‘‘different” does not necessarily mean ‘‘deficient”; that while there are some universals in adolescent brain development, there are also important individual differences; and that the process of brain maturation in adolescence (or during any period, for that matter) unfolds within an environmental context that influences the course of neural development and moderates its expression in emotion, behavior, and cognition. It is also important to acknowledge that we currently have a better understanding of the ways in which adolescent brain development may contribute to psychopathology and problem behavior than we do of the ways in which it may contribute to normative development and positive functioning, and that researchers have paid more attention to the study of universals and processes of biological maturation than to individual differences and environmental influences. As the field matures, and as collaborations between 0278-2626/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.11.003 E-mail address: laurence.steinberg@temple.edu Brain and Cognition 72 (2010) 160–164
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37 Not checked yet · 19 Own interpretation · 4 No basis given · 2 Own result · 1 Supported so far
In the paper
“all increase linearly from preadolescence through late adolescence and, in some respects, early adulthood.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Steinberg et al., 2008
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“many risk behaviors follow this pattern, including unprotected sex, criminal behavior, attempted suicide, and reckless driving (Steinberg, 2008).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Steinberg, 2008
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Especially important are increases in dopaminergic activity during early adolescence in pathways linking limbic, striatal, and prefrontal areas (Wahlstrom et al., this issue).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wahlstrom et al., this issue
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“the presence of peers leads adolescents to more steeply discount delayed rewards, leading to increased preference for immediate, although smaller, ones (O'Brien & Steinberg, 2010).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites O'Brien & Steinberg, 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“all increase linearly from preadolescence through late adolescence and, in some respects, early adulthood.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Steinberg et al., 2009
- Not checked yetcites Albert, et al., 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“preliminary data indicates that adolescents activate socio-emotional reward regions (e.g., medial PFC, ventral striatum) more strongly when making risky decisions while being observed by their peers than when they do so alone.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“follow a ⋂-shaped function, increasing between preadolescence and mid-adolescence, peaking between 14 and 16, and then declining.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Steinberg, et al., 2009
plaindirectn = 935- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“all increase linearly from preadolescence through late adolescence and, in some respects, early adulthood.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Steinberg et al., 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“our early data suggest that adults show few differences in activation of socio-emotional reward centers in the peer condition as compared to when they are alone.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“follow a ⋂-shaped function, increasing between preadolescence and mid-adolescence, peaking between 14 and 16, and then declining.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Steinberg, et al., 2008
plaindirectn = 935- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 14
- Probably not a substantial claim. 11
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“It makes perfect evolutionary sense that individuals are more motivated by appetitive inclinations, more oriented toward sensation-seeking, and more willing to take risks during adolescence, when they must leave the natal environment and seek out mates (Casey et al., 2008; Spear, 2010; Steinberg, 2008).”
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Casey et al., 2008 source
The Introduction describes heightened reward responsiveness, novelty and positive sensation seeking, and risk-taking during adolescence. It also offers an evolutionary explanation: leaving the family environment to find a mate may require high-risk behavior. The paper frames that explanation as a possibility, rather than an established evolutionary fact. (LLM, conf=0.90)
- Not checked yetcites Spear, 2010
- Not checked yetcites Steinberg, 2008
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents in ancestral environments had to leave the natal environment and seek mates.
- Supported
In the paper
“there is evidence that adolescents are highly responsive to the social rewards afforded by positive peer evaluation and that such rewards activate the same brain regions as non-social rewards (Guyer et al., 2009).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Guyer et al., 2009 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“we have also replicated the earlier finding, but with completely different tasks, showing that the presence of peers increases adolescents' risk taking but has no such effect on adults.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gardner & Steinberg, 2005 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the basic notion that the density of prefrontal grey matter follows a ⋂-shaped trajectory over development, with a peak somewhere around age 11 (earlier for girls, later for boys) still finds considerable empirical support”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“structural maturity of white matter is correlated with more, not less, risk-taking.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Berns et al., 2009 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“individual differences in individuals' vulnerability to peer pressure are correlated with differences in structural and functional connectivity in ways that link the development of resistance to peer influence to improvements in the coordination of emotion and cognition.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Grosbras et al., 2007 source
- Not checked yetcites Paus et al., 2008
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“in the lab it is possible to construct tasks that have equivalent meaning to people of different ages and, if necessary, to manipulate performance so that brain functioning can be compared both with and without equivalent performance”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Blakemore et al., this issue
- Not checked yetcites Luna et al., this issue
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“has the potential to structure a new, overarching model of normative and atypical adolescent development.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is now well established that there is a decline in grey matter and an increase in white matter in these regions during adolescence”
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“while there are some universals in adolescent brain development, there are also important individual differences”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“evidence continues to accumulate that brain maturation continues throughout adolescence, with some of the most significant changes taking place in prefrontal areas.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“at least some forms of adolescent psychopathology are related to abnormalities in the remodeling of the dopaminergic system at puberty (which would affect appetitive and affective functioning) or in the morphological changes of the prefrontal cortex or its connections to other brain regions over the course of adolescence (which would affect self-regulation).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Paus et al., 2008
- Not checked yetcites Steinberg et al., 2006
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed, it appears that the brain changes characteristic of adolescence are among the most dramatic and important to occur during the human lifespan.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the process of brain maturation in adolescence (or during any period, for that matter) unfolds within an environmental context that influences the course of neural development and moderates its expression in emotion, behavior, and cognition.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“heightened brain plasticity in adolescence may contribute to increased vulnerability to certain forms of psychopathology, many of which begin or intensify during adolescence.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites McCormick et al., this issue
- Not checked yetcites Walker et al., 2004 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the basic notion that early adolescence is characterized by a dramatic increase in appetitive drive that remains relatively unchecked until self-regulatory systems mature is eerily similar to the basic Freudian model of adolescence”
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“this neuroscientific model of adolescence is the first new “grand theory” of adolescence to be proposed in the last 50 years.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Dopamine, of course, plays a role in reward anticipation and reward-seeking, but it also has been implicated in motivated action more broadly (Angier, 2009).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Angier, 2009
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we currently have a better understanding of the ways in which adolescent brain development may contribute to psychopathology and problem behavior than we do of the ways in which it may contribute to normative development and positive functioning”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“posits that middle adolescence is a time of heightened vulnerability to risky and reckless behavior because of the temporal disjunction between the rapid rise in dopaminergic activity around the time of puberty, which leads to an increase in reward-seeking, and the slower and more gradual maturation of the prefrontal cortex and its connections to other brain regions”
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“researchers have paid more attention to the study of universals and processes of biological maturation than to individual differences and environmental influences.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Oxytocin neurotransmission has been implicated in a variety of social behaviors, including facilitation of social bonding and recognition and memory for positive social stimuli (Insel & Fernald, 2004).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Insel & Fernald, 2004
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Animal studies suggest that some of the changes in dopaminergic activity are directly attributable to the hormonal changes of puberty”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Sisk & Foster, 2004 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Brain development undoubtedly influences adolescents' behavior, but it does so within a context.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Most discussions of how adolescent brain development relates to behavior overlook the contexts in which adolescents live.
- Rests on an assumption: How much adolescents engage in risky behavior partly depends on their access to substances and to situations that create risk.
- Rests on an assumption: Raising the legal drinking age from 18 to 21 reduced alcohol-related driving deaths for reasons unrelated to adolescent brain maturation.
- Rests on an assumption: More parental monitoring, teen driving limits, or after-school adult supervision would probably lower teen pregnancies, car crashes, and juvenile crime, but not via neurobiological changes.
The paper relies on this without support.
Adolescents in ancestral environments had to leave the natal environment and seek mates.
“when they must leave the natal environment and seek out mates”
The paper relies on this without support.
US law prohibits alcohol sales to individuals under 21, which constrains opportunities for binge drinking during middle adolescence.
“the prohibition of alcohol sales to individuals under 21 in the United States”
The paper relies on this without support.
Studies of adolescent brain development have grown faster than studies of the psychological phenomena that such maturation is presumed to produce.
“it is ironic that the remarkable increase in research on adolescent brain development during the past decade has outpaced research on the very psychological phenomena that this period of brain maturation presumably causes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most psychological studies do not cover the full span from preadolescence through adolescence to early adulthood.
“few studies typically include an age range spanning preadolescence, adolescence, and early adulthood”
The paper relies on this without support.
Behavioral and self-report research often compares children with adolescents, less often adolescents with adults, and rarely all three age groups together.
“there are many behavioral and self-report studies that compare children and adolescents, fewer that compare adolescents and adults, and almost none that compare children, adolescent, and adults all at once”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most discussions of how adolescent brain development relates to behavior overlook the contexts in which adolescents live.
“one element that has been missing from most discussions linking adolescent brain development and behavior is the context in which adolescents live.”
The paper relies on this without support.
How much adolescents engage in risky behavior partly depends on their access to substances and to situations that create risk.
“the degree to which adolescents engage in risky behavior is in part a function of opportunities to access substances and circumstances that place them at risk.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Raising the legal drinking age from 18 to 21 reduced alcohol-related driving deaths for reasons unrelated to adolescent brain maturation.
“The reason that the incidence of alcohol-related driving fatalities declined when the legal drinking age was raised from 18 to 21 has nothing to do with changes in the brain development of young people”
The paper relies on this without support.
More parental monitoring, teen driving limits, or after-school adult supervision would probably lower teen pregnancies, car crashes, and juvenile crime, but not via neurobiological changes.
“increasing parental monitoring, placing restrictions on teen driving, or providing adult supervision during after-school hours would likely reduce teen pregnancies, car crashes, and juvenile crime, but for reasons that have nothing to do with neurobiological development.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The brain in adolescence differs significantly from the brain in childhood and adulthood [45–48].”
From Medical decision-making in children and adolescents: developmental and neuroscientific aspects (2017) · cites this paper as [46]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The most significant changes in the brain are associated with processing rewards and risks, self-regulation, and the effect of peers on decision-making.”
From Medical decision-making in children and adolescents: developmental and neuroscientific aspects (2017) · cites this paper as [46]
In the citing paper
“the tendency to misinterpret differences as deficiencies [11]”
From Arrested development? Reconsidering dual-systems models of brain function in adolescence and disorders (2012) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“the lack of appreciation for the dynamic interplay between limbic and cognitive systems during adolescence [9,11,17]”
From Arrested development? Reconsidering dual-systems models of brain function in adolescence and disorders (2012) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“although risk taking and substance use become more common during adolescence, they decline during early adulthood, when regulatory brain systems have usually reached adult levels of maturity [11,27].”
From Arrested development? Reconsidering dual-systems models of brain function in adolescence and disorders (2012) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“There is also evidence that brain size growth continues into the third decade in some individuals.”
From Emerging Adulthood, a Pre-adult Life-History Stage (2020) · cites this paper as [40]
In the citing paper
“In these individuals, hypothalamic maturation, puberty, and the resultant hormonal surges are dissociated from and even precede development and maturity of frontal cortex (40, 41).”
From Emerging Adulthood, a Pre-adult Life-History Stage (2020) · cites this paper as [40]
Citations
Cites
A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk-taking
Steinberg, L. (2008) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2007.08.002 · Cited by 3,644
Self-citationCasey, B. J., Jones, R. M., & Hare, T. A. (2008) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1196/annals.1440.010 · Cited by 3,345
Why do many psychiatric disorders emerge during adolescence?
Paus, T., Keshavan, M., & Giedd, J. N. (2008) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2513 · Cited by 3,123
Steinberg, L., & Morris, A. S. (2001) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.83 · Cited by 2,517
Self-citationGardner, M., & Steinberg, L. (2005) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.4.625 · Cited by 2,218
Self-citationAge differences in resistance to peer influence.
Steinberg, L. D., & Monahan, K. C. (2007) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1531 · Cited by 1,789
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Metadata
- Authors
- Steinberg, L.
- Affiliations
- Temple University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Steinberg, Laurence
- ORCID
- Steinberg, Laurence
- Venue
- Brain and Cognition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2010-02
- Volume
- 72
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 160-164
- ISSN
- 0278-2626 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2904973
- OpenAlex
- W1991562335
- Semantic Scholar
- 967c9961e4a9e17622948656a152eb87f837a516
- Cited by
- 342
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 23 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 28 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 20.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Brain and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (R21DA022546)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychopathy, Forensic Psychiatry, Sexual Offending
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- problematic sexual behavior, child advocacy centers, adolescent brain development, misunderstanding, multidisciplinary team, child sexual development, evidence-based interventions, professional training needs, child safety
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Behavior, Brain, Environment, Humans, Models, Neurological, Models, Psychological, Risk-Taking, Adolescent Development
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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