A behavioral scientist looks at the science of adolescent brain development
Open accessAbstract
2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. In a remarkably short period of time – about 10 years, by my estimation – the developmental neuroscience of adolescence has matured from a field in its infancy to one that is now approaching its own adolescence. The papers gathered in this special issue, from some of the world’s leading scholars of adolescent brain development, showcase the richness, depth, and breadth of understanding that now characterizes this area of developmental science. As in any field that is barely a decade old, there remain many mysteries, contradictions, and unknowns. But given the short period of time during which systematic study has been ongoing, there is also a surprising degree of consistency, consensus, and replication. In this brief commentary, I focus on several broad themes that cut across the articles in this collection, both with respect to what we know (or at least have a reasonably good understanding of) and with respect to what we do not know. As a non-neuroscientist with no formal training in the study of brain development, it is beyond my expertise to delve deeply into the technical details of the research described by the contributors to this anthology. Nor is such an analysis necessary; the papers are uniformly clear and written at a level that will both interest other neuroscientists and edify behavioral scientists like myself, who increasingly find themselves needing to know about the neural underpinnings of the psychological and social phenomena they study. My focus in this commentary will be mainly on what these new studies reveal that will be of special interest to those who study adolescent behavioral development. Let me begin with what will surely strike many readers as obvious, but which needs to be said strenuously and incontrovertibly. Taken together, the contributions to this issue demonstrate conclusively that the adolescent’s brain is different from both the child’s brain and the adult’s brain. It is different with respect to both morphology and function, and at the levels of brain structures, regions, circuits, and systems. It is different with respect to grey matter (Gogtay & Thompson, this issue), white matter (Paus, this issue), structural connectivity (Schmithorst & Yuan, this issue; White et al., this issue), and neurotransmission (Doremus-Fitzwater et al., this issue; Wahlstrom et al., this issue). It is different in ways that are revealed in studies of sleep (Feinberg & Campbell, this issue), electrophysiology (Segalowitz et al., this issue), functional imaging (Luna et al., this issue; Somerville et al., this issue), pharmacological challenge (Wahlstrom et al., this issue), and stress reactivity (McCormick et al., this issue). It is different in ways that are consistent with studies of juvenile rodents (Doremus-Fitzwater et al., this issue) and non-human primates (Dahl & Forbes, this issue), and among males as well as females (Lenroot & Giedd, this issue). And it is different in ways that are consistent with the observations of behavioral scientists who study both normative development (Sebastian et al., this issue; Dahl & Forbes, this issue) and developmental psychopathology (Gogtay & Thompson, this issue). I state the obvious here to preemptively respond the claims of some non-neuroscientists that the notion of ‘‘the adolescent brain” is some sort of myth (Epstein, 2007; Males, 2009). As this collection of papers makes eminently clear, the fact that there are significant changes in the brain during adolescence is no longer debatable – if indeed it ever was. Indeed, it appears that the brain changes characteristic of adolescence are among the most dramatic and important to occur during the human lifespan. Whether neurobiological differences between adolescents and adults should inform how society treats young people is open for debate, but whether such differences are real is not (Steinberg, 2009). That said, it is important to note, as several of the contributors to this issue have stated, that ‘‘different” does not necessarily mean ‘‘deficient”; that while there are some universals in adolescent brain development, there are also important individual differences; and that the process of brain maturation in adolescence (or during any period, for that matter) unfolds within an environmental context that influences the course of neural development and moderates its expression in emotion, behavior, and cognition. It is also important to acknowledge that we currently have a better understanding of the ways in which adolescent brain development may contribute to psychopathology and problem behavior than we do of the ways in which it may contribute to normative development and positive functioning, and that researchers have paid more attention to the study of universals and processes of biological maturation than to individual differences and environmental influences. As the field matures, and as collaborations between 0278-2626/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.11.003 E-mail address: laurence.steinberg@temple.edu Brain and Cognition 72 (2010) 160–164
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- Findingcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Impulse control, as measured by self-report and unhurried decision-making on the Tower of London task, shows a linear increase from preadolescence to late adolescence, continuing in some ways into early adulthood.
“all increase linearly from preadolescence through late adolescence and, in some respects, early adulthood.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Steinberg et al., 2008
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- Findingcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Many risk behaviors follow this pattern, including unprotected sex, criminal behavior, attempted suicide, and reckless driving.
“many risk behaviors follow this pattern, including unprotected sex, criminal behavior, attempted suicide, and reckless driving (Steinberg, 2008).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Steinberg, 2008
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- Findingcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Dopaminergic activity increases during early adolescence in pathways connecting limbic, striatal, and prefrontal areas.
“Especially important are increases in dopaminergic activity during early adolescence in pathways linking limbic, striatal, and prefrontal areas (Wahlstrom et al., this issue).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wahlstrom et al., this issue
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- Findingcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Peer presence leads adolescents to discount delayed rewards more steeply, increasing preference for smaller immediate rewards.
“the presence of peers leads adolescents to more steeply discount delayed rewards, leading to increased preference for immediate, although smaller, ones (O'Brien & Steinberg, 2010).”
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- Findingcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Strategic planning, as measured by self-report and Tower of London performance, shows a linear increase from preadolescence to late adolescence, continuing in some ways into early adulthood.
“all increase linearly from preadolescence through late adolescence and, in some respects, early adulthood.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Steinberg et al., 2009
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- cites Albert, et al., 2009
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- Findingown data§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Preliminary data indicate that adolescents show stronger activation in socio-emotional reward regions, such as medial PFC and ventral striatum, when making risky decisions while observed by peers than when alone.
“preliminary data indicates that adolescents activate socio-emotional reward regions (e.g., medial PFC, ventral striatum) more strongly when making risky decisions while being observed by their peers than when they do so alone.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Preference for immediate rewards, as measured by a delay discounting task, follows an inverted-U trajectory: it increases from preadolescence to mid-adolescence, peaks between ages 14 and 16, and then declines.
“follow a ⋂-shaped function, increasing between preadolescence and mid-adolescence, peaking between 14 and 16, and then declining.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Steinberg, et al., 2009
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- Findingcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Anticipation of future consequences, as measured by self-report, shows a linear increase from preadolescence to late adolescence, continuing in some ways into early adulthood.
“all increase linearly from preadolescence through late adolescence and, in some respects, early adulthood.”
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- Findingown data§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Early data suggest that adults show little difference in socio-emotional reward center activation between peer-observed and alone conditions.
“our early data suggest that adults show few differences in activation of socio-emotional reward centers in the peer condition as compared to when they are alone.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Sensation-seeking, as measured by self-report and a video driving game, follows an inverted-U trajectory: it increases from preadolescence to mid-adolescence, peaks between ages 14 and 16, and then declines.
“follow a ⋂-shaped function, increasing between preadolescence and mid-adolescence, peaking between 14 and 16, and then declining.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Steinberg, et al., 2008
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- Findingown data§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Reward sensitivity, as measured by the Iowa Gambling Task, follows an inverted-U trajectory: it increases from preadolescence to mid-adolescence, peaks between ages 14 and 16, and then declines.
“follow a ⋂-shaped function, increasing between preadolescence and mid-adolescence, peaking between 14 and 16, and then declining.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cauffman, et al., in press
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- Findingcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Individual differences in structural connectivity during early adolescence correlate with delay discounting, such that individuals with more organized white matter are less drawn to immediate rewards.
“individual differences in structural connectivity during early adolescence are correlated with delay discounting performance, such that individuals with more highly organized white matter are less likely to be drawn to immediate rewards (Olson et al., 2008).”
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- Findingcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Resistance to peer influence, as measured by self-report and experimentally manipulated exposure to peers, shows a linear increase from preadolescence to late adolescence, continuing in some ways into early adulthood.
“all increase linearly from preadolescence through late adolescence and, in some respects, early adulthood.”
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- cites Gardner & Steinberg, 2005 source
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- Findingcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Preference for risky activity-the belief that the benefits of risk-taking outweigh the costs-is greater in mid-adolescence than in periods before or after.
“individuals' preference for risky activity – the extent to which they believe that the benefits of risk-taking outweigh the costs – is higher during mid-adolescence than before or after”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Steinberg, 2009
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- Findingcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Preference for risky activity is predicted both separately and together by measures of reward-seeking and self-regulation.
“predicted independently and jointly by measures of reward-seeking and self-regulation”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Steinberg, 2009
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- Interpretationcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
The adolescent brain is distinct from the brains of children and adults in its morphology and function, across structures, regions, circuits, and systems.
“Taken together, the contributions to this issue demonstrate conclusively that the adolescent's brain is different from both the child's brain and the adult's brain. It is different with respect to both morphology and function, and at the levels of brain structures, regions, circuits, and systems.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Gotgay & Thompson, this issue
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- cites Paus, this issue
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- cites Schmithorst & Yuan, this issue
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- Interpretationcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Puberty is a time of broader changes in appetitive behavior, not only in reward-driven behavior.
“the pubertal period is a time of changes in appetitive behavior more generally, and not simply in reward-driven behavior.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Dahl & Forbes, this issue
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- Interpretationcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Early adolescence is a period of considerable brain plasticity.
“the evidence also points to early adolescence as a time of considerable brain plasticity”
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- Interpretationreasoning§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
As dopaminergic activity falls from its early adolescent peak and self-regulatory systems mature, risk-taking begins to decline.
“As dopaminergic activity declines from its early adolescent peak, and as self-regulatory systems become increasingly mature, risk-taking begins to decline.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Important changes also occur during adolescence in other brain regions, including parietal and temporal cortices and the cerebellum.
“there is also growing evidence that important changes occur during adolescence in other brain regions, including the parietal and temporal cortices, as well as the cerebellum.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
The rise in structural connectivity is accompanied by increases in functional connectivity.
“This increase in structural connectivity is, not surprisingly, paralleled by increases in functional connectivity”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Luna et al., this issue
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- Interpretationreasoning§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Three changes-the altered grey-to-white matter ratio in prefrontal areas, increased connectivity between prefrontal and other regions, and increased dopaminergic activity in prefrontal-striatal-limbic pathways-form the basis for a theory linking adolescent brain maturation to greater vulnerability to risky behavior.
“These three changes – the change in the ratio of grey to white matter in prefrontal areas, the increase in connectivity between prefrontal and other regions, and the increase in dopaminergic activity in prefrontal-striatal-limbic pathways – provide the basis for a theory that links brain maturation in adolescence to increased vulnerability to risky behavior.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Some, but not all, forms of psychopathology involve appetitive or affective dysregulation, such as depression, substance abuse, and eating disorders.
“Some, but not all, of these forms of psychopathology in one way or another involve appetitive or affective dysregulation (e.g., depression, substance abuse, eating disorders).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Adolescence involves dramatic changes in the fiber tracts connecting different brain regions and structures.
“It is now clear that adolescence is a time of dramatic changes in fiber tracts that link different brain regions and structures (Schmithorst & Yuan, this issue).”
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- Interpretationreasoning§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Peer effects on risky decision-making may be mediated specifically through their impact on reward processing.
“the impact of peers on risky decision-making may be mediated specifically by their effects on reward processing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisenone given§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Many forms of psychopathology begin or intensify during adolescence.
“many forms of psychopathology onset or intensify during adolescence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
The grey and white matter changes of adolescence are not caused solely by synaptic pruning and myelination, contrary to what had been widely assumed.
“there is some evidence that these changes are not due solely to synaptic pruning and myelination, as had been widely assumed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
The field has largely abandoned the major grand theories of adolescence that previously dominated research, including psychoanalytic theory, Erikson's identity theory, and Piaget's cognitive theory.
“the field has more or less abandoned the major grand theories of adolescence that previously had dominated research (psychoanalytic theory, Erikson's theory of identity development, and Piaget's theory of cognitive development)”
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- Interpretationcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Some of the grey matter density change previously attributed to synaptic pruning may instead result from other cellular processes and from increases in white matter, which would affect grey matter density estimates.
“some of the change in the grey matter density that had been attributed to synaptic pruning may instead be due to other cellular processes as well as increases in white matter, which would affect estimates of grey matter density (Gotgay & Thompson, this issue).”
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- Interpretationreasoning§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Brain plasticity during adolescence makes this period a time of substantial opportunity for intervention.
“brain plasticity in adolescence makes this period a time of considerable opportunity for intervention.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Some of the best behavioral data on reward processing and self-regulation now come from functional brain imaging studies.
“Ironically, some of the best behavioral data on these matters now come from functional brain imaging studies of reward processing”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Other risky behaviors, such as binge drinking, peak later in development because opportunities to engage in them are more constrained during middle adolescence, for example by US laws prohibiting alcohol sales to those under 21, rather than because the underlying psychological processes differ.
“the reason that certain other risky behaviors, such as binge drinking, peak a little later in development is because there are more constraints on opportunities to engage on them during middle adolescence (e.g., the prohibition of alcohol sales to individuals under 21 in the United States), and not because the underlying psychological processes are different.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: US law prohibits alcohol sales to individuals under 21, which constrains opportunities for binge drinking during middle adolescence.
- Interpretationreasoning§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Middle adolescence, roughly ages 14 to 17, should be especially vulnerable to risky behavior because sensation-seeking is high while self-regulation remains immature.
“From this perspective, middle adolescence (roughly 14 to 17) should be a period of especially heightened vulnerability to risky behavior, because sensation-seeking is high and self-regulation is still immature.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Adolescence also brings important changes in processing social and emotional information, much of which relies on the same regions and systems underlying the motivational and self-regulatory changes emphasized by risk-taking researchers.
“adolescence is also a time of important changes in the processing of social and emotional information, much of which is subserved by the same regions and systems that undergird the motivational and self-regulatory changes described by writers who have focused on risk taking.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Blakemore et al., this issue
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- Premisecitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Animal research indicates that other dopaminergic changes may only coincide with puberty, possibly following a timetable set well before adolescence.
“that some are merely coincident with them, perhaps programmed to unfold along a developmental schedule established long before adolescence”
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- Interpretationreasoning§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Middle adolescence's heightened vulnerability will produce different outcomes across settings, depending on opportunities for reward-seeking and on how much external agents regulate adolescents whose self-regulation is still developing.
“The heightened vulnerability of middle adolescence will have different consequences in different settings, both as a function of available opportunities to engage in reward-seeking, and as a function of the degree to which external agents regulate adolescents whose self-regulation is still maturing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: How much adolescents engage in risky behavior partly depends on their access to substances and to situations that create risk.
- Premisecitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Animal research indicates that some dopaminergic changes during puberty are indirectly attributable to gonadal hormonal shifts, in that gonadal hormones may catalyze other processes.
“that some are indirectly attributable to them (in that the presence of gonadal hormones may catalyze other processes)”
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- Premisecitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Adolescents can satisfy their sensation-seeking urges in many ways that are neither harmful nor antisocial.
“there are many ways for adolescents to satisfy their inclinations toward sensation-seeking that are not harmful or antisocial”
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- Premisecitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain Development
Rising gonadal hormones during puberty have been associated with more oxytocin receptors in limbic areas such as the amygdala and nucleus accumbens.
“puberty-related increases in gonadal hormones have been linked to a proliferation of receptors for oxytocin within the limbic system, including such structures as the amygdala and nucleus accumbens (Spear, 2009).”
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- May combine two claims. 14
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 11
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Findingcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentAdolescents are highly responsive to social rewards from positive peer evaluation, and these rewards activate the same brain regions as non-social rewards.
“there is evidence that adolescents are highly responsive to the social rewards afforded by positive peer evaluation and that such rewards activate the same brain regions as non-social rewards (Guyer et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Guyer et al., 2009 source
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Findingown data§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentPeer presence increases risk taking in adolescents but has no such effect in adults.
“we have also replicated the earlier finding, but with completely different tasks, showing that the presence of peers increases adolescents' risk taking but has no such effect on adults.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gardner & Steinberg, 2005 source
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Findingnone given§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentPrefrontal grey matter density follows an inverted-U trajectory over development, peaking around age 11, earlier in girls and later in boys.
“the basic notion that the density of prefrontal grey matter follows a ⋂-shaped trajectory over development, with a peak somewhere around age 11 (earlier for girls, later for boys) still finds considerable empirical support”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentWhite matter structural maturity correlates with greater, not lesser, risk-taking.
“structural maturity of white matter is correlated with more, not less, risk-taking.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Berns et al., 2009 source
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Findingcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentIndividual differences in susceptibility to peer pressure correlate with structural and functional connectivity differences, linking the development of resistance to peer influence with improved coordination of emotion and cognition.
“individual differences in individuals' vulnerability to peer pressure are correlated with differences in structural and functional connectivity in ways that link the development of resistance to peer influence to improvements in the coordination of emotion and cognition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Grosbras et al., 2007 source
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- cites Paus et al., 2008
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Premisecitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentIn laboratory paradigms, tasks can be constructed to have equivalent meaning for people of different ages, and performance can be manipulated so that brain functioning is compared with and without equivalent performance.
“in the lab it is possible to construct tasks that have equivalent meaning to people of different ages and, if necessary, to manipulate performance so that brain functioning can be compared both with and without equivalent performance”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Blakemore et al., this issue
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- cites Luna et al., this issue
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Interpretationreasoning§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentThe emergent neuroscientific perspective has the potential to structure a new overarching model of normative and atypical adolescent development.
“has the potential to structure a new, overarching model of normative and atypical adolescent development.”
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Premisenone given§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentDuring adolescence, prefrontal regions show a decrease in grey matter and an increase in white matter.
“It is now well established that there is a decline in grey matter and an increase in white matter in these regions during adolescence”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone given§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentAdolescent brain development includes some universal features but also significant individual differences.
“while there are some universals in adolescent brain development, there are also important individual differences”
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Premisenone given§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentBrain maturation continues through adolescence, with some of the most significant changes occurring in prefrontal areas.
“evidence continues to accumulate that brain maturation continues throughout adolescence, with some of the most significant changes taking place in prefrontal areas.”
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Interpretationreasoning§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentAt least some adolescent psychopathology is related to abnormalities in pubertal dopaminergic remodeling or in morphological changes of the prefrontal cortex or its connections over adolescence.
“at least some forms of adolescent psychopathology are related to abnormalities in the remodeling of the dopaminergic system at puberty (which would affect appetitive and affective functioning) or in the morphological changes of the prefrontal cortex or its connections to other brain regions over the course of adolescence (which would affect self-regulation).”
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- cites Steinberg et al., 2006
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Interpretationnone given§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentThe brain changes that characterize adolescence are among the most dramatic and important across the human lifespan.
“Indeed, it appears that the brain changes characteristic of adolescence are among the most dramatic and important to occur during the human lifespan.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone given§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentBrain maturation during adolescence occurs within an environmental context that shapes neural development and moderates how it appears in emotion, behavior, and cognition.
“the process of brain maturation in adolescence (or during any period, for that matter) unfolds within an environmental context that influences the course of neural development and moderates its expression in emotion, behavior, and cognition.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentHeightened brain plasticity in adolescence may increase vulnerability to certain forms of psychopathology, many of which begin or worsen during adolescence.
“heightened brain plasticity in adolescence may contribute to increased vulnerability to certain forms of psychopathology, many of which begin or intensify during adolescence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites McCormick et al., this issue
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- cites Walker et al., 2004 source
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Interpretationreasoning§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentThe idea that early adolescence brings a dramatic rise in appetitive drive that remains relatively unchecked until self-regulatory systems mature is strikingly similar to the basic Freudian model of adolescence.
“the basic notion that early adolescence is characterized by a dramatic increase in appetitive drive that remains relatively unchecked until self-regulatory systems mature is eerily similar to the basic Freudian model of adolescence”
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Interpretationcitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentIt makes evolutionary sense that adolescents are more motivated by appetitive inclinations, more oriented toward sensation-seeking, and more willing to take risks, given that they must leave the natal environment and seek mates.
“It makes perfect evolutionary sense that individuals are more motivated by appetitive inclinations, more oriented toward sensation-seeking, and more willing to take risks during adolescence, when they must leave the natal environment and seek out mates (Casey et al., 2008; Spear, 2010; Steinberg, 2008).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Casey et al., 2008 source
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- cites Spear, 2010
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- cites Steinberg, 2008
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- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents in ancestral environments had to leave the natal environment and seek mates.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationreasoning§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentThe neuroscientific model of adolescence is the first new grand theory of adolescence proposed in the last 50 years.
“this neuroscientific model of adolescence is the first new “grand theory” of adolescence to be proposed in the last 50 years.”
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Premisecitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentDopamine is involved in reward anticipation and reward-seeking, and also in motivated action more generally.
“Dopamine, of course, plays a role in reward anticipation and reward-seeking, but it also has been implicated in motivated action more broadly (Angier, 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Angier, 2009
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Interpretationnone given§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentCurrent knowledge is greater about how adolescent brain development may contribute to psychopathology and problem behavior than about how it may contribute to normative development and positive functioning.
“we currently have a better understanding of the ways in which adolescent brain development may contribute to psychopathology and problem behavior than we do of the ways in which it may contribute to normative development and positive functioning”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentThe dual systems framework proposes that middle adolescence is a period of heightened vulnerability to risky and reckless behavior because the rapid pubertal rise in dopaminergic activity increases reward-seeking while prefrontal cortex maturation and its connections lag, limiting cognitive control and affect-cognition coordination.
“posits that middle adolescence is a time of heightened vulnerability to risky and reckless behavior because of the temporal disjunction between the rapid rise in dopaminergic activity around the time of puberty, which leads to an increase in reward-seeking, and the slower and more gradual maturation of the prefrontal cortex and its connections to other brain regions”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationnone given§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentResearchers have focused more on universals and biological maturation than on individual differences and environmental influences.
“researchers have paid more attention to the study of universals and processes of biological maturation than to individual differences and environmental influences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentOxytocin signaling has been linked to various social functions, such as bonding, recognition, and memory for positive social cues.
“Oxytocin neurotransmission has been implicated in a variety of social behaviors, including facilitation of social bonding and recognition and memory for positive social stimuli (Insel & Fernald, 2004).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Insel & Fernald, 2004
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentAnimal research indicates that certain dopaminergic changes during puberty result directly from gonadal hormonal shifts.
“Animal studies suggest that some of the changes in dopaminergic activity are directly attributable to the hormonal changes of puberty”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sisk & Foster, 2004 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ Commentary: A Behavioral Scientist Looks at the Science of Adolescent Brain DevelopmentAdolescent behavior is shaped by brain development, but always within a context.
“Brain development undoubtedly influences adolescents' behavior, but it does so within a context.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Most discussions of how adolescent brain development relates to behavior overlook the contexts in which adolescents live.
- Rests on an assumption: How much adolescents engage in risky behavior partly depends on their access to substances and to situations that create risk.
- Rests on an assumption: Raising the legal drinking age from 18 to 21 reduced alcohol-related driving deaths for reasons unrelated to adolescent brain maturation.
- Rests on an assumption: More parental monitoring, teen driving limits, or after-school adult supervision would probably lower teen pregnancies, car crashes, and juvenile crime, but not via neurobiological changes.
The paper relies on this without support.
Adolescents in ancestral environments had to leave the natal environment and seek mates.
“when they must leave the natal environment and seek out mates”
The paper relies on this without support.
US law prohibits alcohol sales to individuals under 21, which constrains opportunities for binge drinking during middle adolescence.
“the prohibition of alcohol sales to individuals under 21 in the United States”
The paper relies on this without support.
Studies of adolescent brain development have grown faster than studies of the psychological phenomena that such maturation is presumed to produce.
“it is ironic that the remarkable increase in research on adolescent brain development during the past decade has outpaced research on the very psychological phenomena that this period of brain maturation presumably causes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most psychological studies do not cover the full span from preadolescence through adolescence to early adulthood.
“few studies typically include an age range spanning preadolescence, adolescence, and early adulthood”
The paper relies on this without support.
Behavioral and self-report research often compares children with adolescents, less often adolescents with adults, and rarely all three age groups together.
“there are many behavioral and self-report studies that compare children and adolescents, fewer that compare adolescents and adults, and almost none that compare children, adolescent, and adults all at once”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most discussions of how adolescent brain development relates to behavior overlook the contexts in which adolescents live.
“one element that has been missing from most discussions linking adolescent brain development and behavior is the context in which adolescents live.”
The paper relies on this without support.
How much adolescents engage in risky behavior partly depends on their access to substances and to situations that create risk.
“the degree to which adolescents engage in risky behavior is in part a function of opportunities to access substances and circumstances that place them at risk.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Raising the legal drinking age from 18 to 21 reduced alcohol-related driving deaths for reasons unrelated to adolescent brain maturation.
“The reason that the incidence of alcohol-related driving fatalities declined when the legal drinking age was raised from 18 to 21 has nothing to do with changes in the brain development of young people”
The paper relies on this without support.
More parental monitoring, teen driving limits, or after-school adult supervision would probably lower teen pregnancies, car crashes, and juvenile crime, but not via neurobiological changes.
“increasing parental monitoring, placing restrictions on teen driving, or providing adult supervision during after-school hours would likely reduce teen pregnancies, car crashes, and juvenile crime, but for reasons that have nothing to do with neurobiological development.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The brain in adolescence differs significantly from the brain in childhood and adulthood.
“The brain in adolescence differs significantly from the brain in childhood and adulthood [45–48].”
From Medical decision-making in children and adolescents: developmental and neuroscientific aspects (2017) · cites this paper as [46]
The most significant changes in the brain during adolescence are associated with processing rewards and risks, self-regulation, and the effect of peers on decision-making.
“The most significant changes in the brain are associated with processing rewards and risks, self-regulation, and the effect of peers on decision-making.”
From Medical decision-making in children and adolescents: developmental and neuroscientific aspects (2017) · cites this paper as [46]
Differences in adolescence are prone to being misread as deficiencies.
“the tendency to misinterpret differences as deficiencies [11]”
From Arrested development? Reconsidering dual-systems models of brain function in adolescence and disorders (2012) · cites this paper as [11]
The dynamic interplay between limbic and cognitive systems during adolescence is insufficiently appreciated.
“the lack of appreciation for the dynamic interplay between limbic and cognitive systems during adolescence [9,11,17]”
From Arrested development? Reconsidering dual-systems models of brain function in adolescence and disorders (2012) · cites this paper as [11]
Risk taking and substance use rise in adolescence and fall in early adulthood, by which time regulatory brain systems are usually mature.
“although risk taking and substance use become more common during adolescence, they decline during early adulthood, when regulatory brain systems have usually reached adult levels of maturity [11,27].”
From Arrested development? Reconsidering dual-systems models of brain function in adolescence and disorders (2012) · cites this paper as [11]
Brain size growth continues into the third decade in some individuals.
“There is also evidence that brain size growth continues into the third decade in some individuals.”
From Emerging Adulthood, a Pre-adult Life-History Stage (2020) · cites this paper as [40]
In some individuals, hypothalamic maturation, puberty, and resultant hormonal surges are dissociated from and even precede development and maturity of frontal cortex.
“In these individuals, hypothalamic maturation, puberty, and the resultant hormonal surges are dissociated from and even precede development and maturity of frontal cortex (40, 41).”
From Emerging Adulthood, a Pre-adult Life-History Stage (2020) · cites this paper as [40]
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- Authors
- Steinberg, L.
- Affiliations
- Temple University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Steinberg, Laurence
- ORCID
- Steinberg, Laurence
- Venue
- Brain and Cognition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2010-02
- Volume
- 72
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 160-164
- ISSN
- 0278-2626 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2904973
- OpenAlex
- W1991562335
- Semantic Scholar
- 967c9961e4a9e17622948656a152eb87f837a516
- Cited by
- 342
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 23 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 28 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 20.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Brain and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (R21DA022546)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychopathy, Forensic Psychiatry, Sexual Offending
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- problematic sexual behavior, child advocacy centers, adolescent brain development, misunderstanding, multidisciplinary team, child sexual development, evidence-based interventions, professional training needs, child safety
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Behavior, Brain, Environment, Humans, Models, Neurological, Models, Psychological, Risk-Taking, Adolescent Development
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-06.
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