Development and validation of the Multimodal Presence Scale for virtual reality environments: A confirmatory factor analysis and item response theory approach
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The CAMIL distinguishes between three different dimensions of presence: physical, social, and self-presence.
“Furthermore, the CAMIL distinguishes between three different dimensions of presence including physical, social, and self-presence (Lee 2004;Makransky et al. 2017).”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Makransky et al. 2017
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Self-citationThe contribution of 3D environments to conceptual understanding
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An item response theory/confirmatory factor analysis of the Autobiographical Memory Test
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Psychometric Properties of the Parent and Teacher ADHD Rating Scale (ADHD-RS)
Makransky, G., & Bilenberg, N. (2014) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191114535242 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Presence of Field Geologists in Mars-Like Terrain
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Self-citationMultitasking, Presence & Self-Presence on the Wii
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Multitasking, presence, and self-presence on the Wii
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Adding immersive virtual reality to a science lab simulation causes more presence but less learning
Makransky, G., Terkildsen, T. S., & Mayer, R. E. (2017) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.12.007 · Cited by 1,598 · see citing works
“…items in the knowledge test, one item in the transfer test, and three items in the presence scale had positive fi t residuals above the critical value of ± 2.5 which is an indication that the items do not measure the intended construct appropriately (Pallant & Tennant, 2007; Makransky et al., 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationMakransky, G., & Petersen, G. B. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09586-2 · Cited by 1,438 · see citing works
Self-citationMakransky, G., & Lilleholt, L. (2018) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-018-9581-2 · Cited by 796 · see citing works
Self-citationMakransky, G., Borre‐Gude, S., & Mayer, R. E. (2019) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12375 · Cited by 532 · see citing works
Self-citationUser acceptance of virtual reality: An extended technology acceptance model
Sagnier, C., Loup-Escande, E., Lourdeaux, D., Thouvenin, I., & Valléry, G. (2020) · International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2019.1708612 · Cited by 493 · see citing works
“Presence is seen as one of the most important features of VR, with practical relevance for the design and evaluation of virtual environments (Lee, 2004; Makransky, Lilleholt, & Aaby, 2017).”
BackgroundImmersive VR and Education: Embodied Design Principles That Include Gesture and Hand Controls
Johnson‐Glenberg, M. C. (2018) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2018.00081 · Cited by 423 · see citing works
“Several surveys are available for assessing the amount of presence in a mediated experience (Slater and Wilbur, 1997; Makransky et al., 2017).”
BackgroundA study of how immersion and interactivity drive VR learning
Petersen, G. B., Petkakis, G., & Makransky, G. (2022) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104429 · Cited by 460 · see citing works
Self-citationOh, H. J., Kim, J., Chang, J. J. C., Park, N., & Lee, S. (2022) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107498 · Cited by 402 · see citing works
Makransky, G., & Mayer, R. E. (2022) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-022-09675-4 · Cited by 386 · see citing works
“; Mayer, 2021a). This is consistent with the results from a recent meta-analysis by Wu et al., (2020) that found a small effects size advantage in favor of immersive VR compared to other traditional means of instruction.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationMakransky, G., & Petersen, G. B. (2019) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2019.02.002 · Cited by 321 · see citing works
Self-citationMakransky, G., Petersen, G. B., & Klingenberg, S. (2020) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12954 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Self-citationQuestionnaire Measures and Physiological Correlates of Presence: A Systematic Review
Grassini, S., & Laumann, K. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00349 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
“…questionnaires, such as the Modified Reality Judgment and Presence Questionnaire (MRJPQ; Anderson et al., 2017), IPQ (Schubert et al., 2001), University College of London Questionnaire (UCLQ; Usoh et al., 1999; Meehan, 2001), and Multimodal Presence Scale (MPS; Makransky et al., 2017a).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialShu, Y., Huang, Y.-Z., Chang, S.-H., & Chen, M. (2018) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-018-0376-x · Cited by 194 · see citing works
“Through a 2*2 experimental design, Makransky et al. (2017) determined that participants had a higher sense of presence under VR HMD compared with that under desktop VR, but they also experienced a higher cognitive load, which affected their learning performance.”
MethodVirtual reality in episodic memory research: A review
Smith, S. A. (2019) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-019-01605-w · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Makransky, G., Wismer, P., & Mayer, R. E. (2018) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12335 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
“An adaptation of the social presence sub-dimension from the Multidimensional Presence Scale (Makransky, Lilleholt, & Aaby, 2017) was used to assess social presence.”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationde Regt, A., Plangger, K. A., & Barnes, S. J. (2021) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.08.004 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Klingenberg, S., Jørgensen, M. L. M., Dandanell, G., Skriver, K., Mottelson, A., & Makransky, G. (2020) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13029 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Self-citationAnwar, M. S., Yang, J. C., Frnda, J., Choi, A., Baghaei, N., & Ali, M. (2025) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-025-01126-z · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Feelings of presence and perceived social support in social virtual reality platforms
van Brakel, V., Barreda-Ángeles, M., & Hartmann, T. (2022) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107523 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Vlahović, S., Sužnjević, M., & Skorin‐Kapov, L. (2022) · Journal on Multimodal User Interfaces · doi:10.1007/s12193-022-00388-0 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Johnson‐Glenberg, M. C., Bartolomea, H., & Kalina, E. (2021) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12567 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Andersen, M. S., & Makransky, G. (2020) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12478 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Necessary Nine: Design Principles for Embodied VR and Active Stem Education
Johnson-Glenberg, M. C. (2019) · Smart Computing and Intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-8265-9_5 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“Several surveys are available for assessing the amount of presence in a mediated experience (Makransky, Lilleholt, & Aaby, 2017; Slater & Wilbur, 1997).”
Pedram, S., Palmisano, S., Skarbez, R., Perez, P., & Farrelly, M. (2020) · Comput. Educ. · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103891 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Onderdijk, K. E., Swarbrick, D., Kerrebroeck, B. V., Mantei, M., Vuoskoski, J. K., Maes, P., & Leman, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.647929 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
“Concert 2 Three models were fit for each simple and complex selection of predictors to understand (1) the contribution of the experimental manipulation of group (YouTube vs. YouTube 360 vs. VR Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 9 May 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 647929 Headset) (Model 1: Group; see Figures 5,…”
MethodInfluentialCorona Concerts: The Effect of Virtual Concert Characteristics on Social Connection and Kama Muta
Swarbrick, D., Seibt, B., Grinspun, N., & Vuoskoski, J. K. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.648448 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Equivalence of using a desktop virtual reality science simulation at home and in class
Makransky, G., Mayer, R. E., Veitch, N., Hood, M., Christensen, K. B., & Gadegaard, H. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0214944 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Self-citationLee, S. W., Hsu, Y.-T., & Cheng, K. (2022) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104456 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Telepresence Social Robotics towards Co-Presence: A Review
Almeida, L., Menezes, P. J., & Dias, J. M. M. (2022) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app12115557 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Garrido, L. E., Frías-Hiciano, M., Moreno-Jiménez, M., Cruz, G. N., García-Batista, Z. E., Guerra-Peña, K., & Medrano, L. A. (2022) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-022-00636-4 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“To measure virtual presence, we employed the Multimodal Presence Scale (MPS; Makransky et al. 2017) and the Igroup Presence Questionnaire (IPQ; Schubert et al. 2001).”
BackgroundMethodPedagogical Agents in Educational VR: An in the Wild Study
Petersen, G. B., Mottelson, A., & Makransky, G. (2021) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3411764.3445760 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“Social presence Pedagogical agent 5 5-point Likert 1-5 [26]”
BackgroundSelf-citationXu, T., Liu, Y., Jin, Y., Qu, Y.-Y., Bai, J., Zhang, W., & Zhou, Y. (2024) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13530 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Xie, T., Zheng, L., Liu, G., & Liu, L. (2022) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-022-00656-0 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“Although more realism might not necessarily lead to better learning achievement, it is likely to promote satisfaction, presence, and affective experiences (Makransky et al. 2017).”
BackgroundEffects of Gender and Prior Experience in Immersive User Experience with Virtual Reality
Sagnier, C., Loup‐Escande, É., & Valléry, G. (2019) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-19135-1_30 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Terkildsen, T. S., & Makransky, G. (2019) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2019.02.006 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“MPS has been shown to provide a short (15 items) yet valid subjective measure of presence, based on a definition of the term that is consistent with the multi-dimensional conceptualization provided in this section (Makransky et al., 2017).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationThisgaard, M., & Makransky, G. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00805 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
“…Partial Credit Model (PCM; Masters, 1982) within the framework of Item Response Theory (Embretson and Reise, 2000) was assessed for each scale (for more information about validating scales using the PCM see: Pallant and Tennant, 2007; Makransky and Bilenberg, 2014; Makransky et al., 2014, 2017).”
MethodSelf-citationPresence in video games: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of game design choices
Caroux, L. (2022) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2022.103936 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
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“…has been consistently portrayed as an immersive phenomenon through which the individual feels he or she is actually present in the 924 ITP 32,4 alternative environment suggested by the technology (e.g. Cummings and Bailenson, 2016; Makransky et al., 2017; Sas and O’Hare, 2003; Slater et al., 1994).”
BackgroundInfluentialKlingenberg, S., Bosse, R., Mayer, R. E., & Makransky, G. (2024) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-024-09956-0 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationThe relationship between disgust sensitivity and behaviour: A virtual reality study on food disgust
Ammann, J., Hartmann, C., Peterhans, V., Ropelato, S., & Siegrist, M. (2019) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2019.103833 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Cognitive overload in immersive virtual reality in education: More presence but less learnt?
Sari, R., Pranesti, A., Solikhatun, I., Nurbaiti, N., & Yuniarti, N. (2023) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-12379-z · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“A VR-based simulation allows students to observe unobservable phenomena; it also reduces the time needed for experiments, and provides a heightened sense of physical, environmental, and social presence (De Jong et al., 2013, 2017; Makransky et al., 2017).”
Anwar, M. S., Choi, A., Ahmad, S., Aurangzeb, K., Laghari, A. A., Gadekallu, T. R., & Hines, A. (2024) · Applied Soft Computing · doi:10.1016/j.asoc.2024.111577 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
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Gandolfi, E., Kosko, K. W., & Ferdig, R. E. (2020) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13058 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“Measures and data In addition to demographics, data were collected from two primary sources: an adaptation of the Multimodal Presence Scale (MPS) for VR environments (Makransky et al., 2017) and recorded video of participants’ viewing experience with the 360 video.”
MethodInfluentialMakransky, G., Mayer, R. E., Nøremølle, A., Córdoba, A. L., Wandall, J., & Bonde, M. (2019) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-019-09690-3 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“To maintain that balance, a total of 41 MC questions over the course of a 2-h learning session allowed for students to encounter a question approximately every 3 min.”
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Alazmi, H. S., & Alemtairy, G. M. (2024) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-12682-3 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“The multimodal presence scale, developed by Makransky et al. (2017 ), fielded 15 items assessed using a 5-point Likert scale (1 completely disagree, 2 disagree, 3 nei - ther disagree nor agree, 4 agree, 5 strongly agree).”
Tangible Immersive Trauma Simulation: Is Mixed Reality the next level of medical skills training?
Uhl, J. C., Schrom-Feiertag, H., Regal, G., Gallhuber, K., & Tscheligi, M. (2023) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3544548.3581292 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
The Theory of Immersive Collaborative Learning (TICOL)
Makransky, G., & Petersen, G. B. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09822-5 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“Experiences of physical presence are often collected via questionnaires administered after the learner has been immersed (e.g., Makransky et al., 2017).”
BackgroundSelf-citationQuestionnaires for evaluating virtual reality: A systematic scoping review
Bareišytė, L., Slatman, S., Austin, J., Rosema, M., van Sintemaartensdijk, I., Watson, S. J., & Bode, C. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2024.100505 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Industry 4.0 and sustainable business models: An intercontinental sample
Kılıç, C., & ATİLLA, G. (2023) · Business Strategy and the Environment · doi:10.1002/bse.3634 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
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“[82] Multimodal Presence Scale (MPS) 161/118 Physical, Social, and Self presence 5-point 62 38/15 VE”
BackgroundMansoor, S., Rahman, S. M., & Bowden, J. (2024) · Journal of Consumer Behaviour · doi:10.1002/cb.2353 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Facilitating learning in immersive virtual reality: Segmentation, summarizing, both or none?
Klingenberg, S., Fischer, R., Zettler, I., & Makransky, G. (2022) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12741 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Self-citationMarre, Q., Caroux, L., & Sakdavong, J.-C. (2021) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2020.1870819 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“To evaluate the level of presence, we used the Multimodal Presence Scale of Makransky et al. (2017) as described in subsection 2.1.3.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialHwang, I., Shim, H., & Lee, W. J. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su14148604 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
VR Porn as “Empathy Machine”? Perception of Self and Others in Virtual Reality Pornography
Dekker, A., Wenzlaff, F., Biedermann, S. V., Briken, P., & Fuß, J. (2020) · The Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224499.2020.1856316 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“This would be particularly useful when comparing different VR conditions, while it is not validated to use for the comparison between VR and 2D (Makransky et al., 2017).”
BackgroundRealism and Field of View Affect Presence in VR but Not the Way You Think
Jicol, C., Clarke, C., Tor, E., Dakin, R. M., Lancaster, T. C., Chang, S. T., Petrini, K., O'Neill, E. J., Proulx, M. J., & Lutteroth, C. (2023) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3544548.3581448 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“The PQ has been widely used for measuring presence in VR [31, 34] and has been correlated with other accepted measures such as the Slater–Usoh–Steed (SUS) [96] and the Multimodal Presence Scale (MPS) [59].”
MethodDu, W., Liang, R., & Liu, D. (2022) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440221114325 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Furthermore, previous studies have confirmed that the ability of VR technology to create learning contexts is the most important indicator of the effectiveness of VR technology applications (Makransky et al., 2017).”
BackgroundInvestigating the effectiveness of immersive VR skill training and its link to physiological arousal
Radhakrishnan, U., Chinello, F., & Koumaditis, K. (2022) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-022-00699-3 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“• Presence Questionnaire The presence questionnaire was adapted from the physical presence subscale of the Multimodal Presence Scale (Makransky et al. 2017) and the telepresence questionnaire (Kim and Biocca 1997).”
MethodSong, Y., Cao, J., Wu, K., Yu, P. L. H., & Lee, J. C. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies · doi:10.1109/tlt.2023.3276574 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
““Presence isoneofthemostimportantpsychologicalconstructsforunder-standinghuman-computerinteraction”[42,p.283].”
Conducting Unsupervised Virtual Reality User Studies Online
Mottelson, A., Petersen, G. B., Lilija, K., & Makransky, G. (2021) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2021.681482 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationA Survey On Measuring Presence in Mixed Reality
Tran, T. Q., Langlotz, T., & Regenbrecht, H. T. (2024) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3613904.3642383 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
A self-administered virtual reality intervention increases COVID-19 vaccination intention
Mottelson, A., Vandeweerdt, C., Atchapero, M., Luong, T., Holz, C., BOHM, R. M., & Makransky, G. (2021) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2021.10.004 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Self-citationCampo, A., Michałko, A., Kerrebroeck, B. V., Stajic, B., Pokrić, M., & Leman, M. (2023) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2023.107810 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Breaking presence in Immersive Virtual Reality toward behavioral and emotional engagement
Caldas, O. I., Mauledoux, M., Avilés, O., & Rodriguez-Guerrero, C. (2024) · Comput. Methods Programs Biomed. · doi:10.1016/j.cmpb.2024.108124 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Oje, A. V., Hunsu, N. J., & Fiorella, L. (2025) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2025.100676 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Virtual Laboratories in STEM Higher Education: A Scoping Review
Sellberg, C., Nazari, Z., & Solberg, M. (2024) · Nordic Journal of Systematic Reviews in Education · doi:10.23865/njsre.v2.5766 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“In previous research, the notion of presence has been explained as “the experience or feeling of being present in a mediated environment, rather than the immediate physical environment wherein one is currently bodily pres-ent (Makransky et al., 2017, p. 276).”
BackgroundSupriadi, M., & Hignasari, L. V. (2019) · KOMIK (Konferensi Nasional Teknologi Informasi dan Komputer) · doi:10.30865/komik.v3i1.1662 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Virtual Terroir and the Premium Coffee Experience
Escobar, F. B., Petit, O., & Velasco, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586983 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
A Narrative Review of Immersive Technology Enhanced Learning in Healthcare Education
Jacobs, C., Foote, G., Joiner, R., & Williams, M. A. (2022) · International Medical Education · doi:10.3390/ime1020008 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Sense of presence can be associated with the realism of the image and user control and reduces with prolonged exposure [188,189].”
BackgroundHsieh, J. C. (2023) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-12135-3 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“The Multiple Presence Scale developed by Makransky et al. (2017), as shown in Appendix 3, was used to examine the virtual presence that the students experienced in Gather, and the students reflected on their experiences using Gather.”
Kim, H., Park, J., & Lee, I. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2023.3320240 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Social presence Social presence refers to a psychological state in which individuals perceive themselves and others as authentic social actors within a virtual environment [49].”
BackgroundMethodLuong, T., Plechatá, A., Moebus, M., Atchapero, M., BOHM, R. M., Makransky, G., & Holz, C. (2022) · Proceedings - International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality, ISMAR · doi:10.1109/ismar55827.2022.00046 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“User experience (UX) : After the study, participants reported their level of presence and social presence (adapted from [43]: “ While I was at the wedding, I had a sense of “being there” , “ I had a sense that I was interacting with other people at the wedding rather than a computer simulation ”,…”
BackgroundSelf-citationPlace attachment theory and virtual reality: the case of a rural tourism destination
Pantelidis, C., Dieck, M. C. T., Jung, T. H., Smith, P., & Miller, A. K. (2024) · International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management · doi:10.1108/ijchm-09-2023-1489 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Jicol, C., Cheng, H. Y., Petrini, K., & O'Neill, E. J. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0280390 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Liu, J., Burkhardt, J.-M., & Lubart, T. (2023) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence11070144 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Kroczek, L. O. H., May, A., Hettenkofer, S., Ruider, A., Ludwig, B., & Mühlberger, A. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2025.108759 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Finally, the social presence subscale of the multi-modal presence scale (MPS, Makransky et al., 2017) was measured for each conversational task.”
Kroczek, L. O. H., & Mühlberger, A. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-41155-9 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Jespersen, A. E., Lumbye, A., Vinberg, M., Glenthøj, L. B., Nordentoft, M., Wæhrens, E. E., Knudsen, G. M., Makransky, G., & Miskowiak, K. W. (2024) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-024-07910-7 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“…using the following questionnaires: the Presence Questionnaire (PQ) [83, 84], the Multimodal Presence Scale for virtual reality environments (MPS), [85] a modified version of the Technological Acceptance Model (TAM) questionnaire [86], the Virtual Reality Simulation Sickness questionnaire (VRSQ)…”
MethodSelf-citationEvaluating the Impact of XR on User Experience in the Tomato Industrial Museum “D. Nomikos”
Sylaiou, S., Dafiotis, P., Fidas, C. A., Vlachou, E., & Nomikou, V. (2024) · Heritage · doi:10.3390/heritage7030082 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Heilala, V., Kelly, R., Saarela, M., Jääskelä, P., & Kärkkäinen, T. (2022) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2022.2049142 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Designing and Assessing a Virtual Reality Simulation to Build Resilience to Street Harassment
Jicol, C., Feltham, J., Yoon, J., Proulx, M. J., O'Neill, E. J., & Lutteroth, C. (2022) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3491102.3502129 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Kuo, Y.-T., Bravo, E. G., Whittinghill, D., & Kuo, Y.-C. (2023) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2023.2278929 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“…between the use of traditional materials (e.g., PowerPoint and 2D models) and VR tools, the results showed that the VR tools led to distraction and lower learning outcomes in science courses (Makransky et al., 2017; Moreno & Mayer, 2004; Parong & Mayer, 2018, 2021; Richards & Taylor, 2015).”
Pfaller, M. A., Kroczek, L. O. H., Lange, B., Fülöp, R., Müller, M., & Mühlberger, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2021.741138 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“” In the Multimodal Presence Scale, a questionnaire designed to measure the three dimensions of presence defined by Lee (2004), the subscale social presence contains but is not limited to “human realism,”which includes experiencing virtual agents as “credible” (Makransky et al., 2017).”
BackgroundWang, W., Lee, H., Lin, C., Li, P., Huang, Y., & Wu, T. (2024) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13512 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Grassini, S., Laumann, K., Thorp, S. O., & Topranin, V. D. M. (2021) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.2269 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“The MPS is a relatively new questionnaire, but due to its structure and its adaptability to various VR environments (as reported by the authors, see Makransky et al., 2017), it is lately being used and hasbeentranslatedindifferentlanguages(seee.g.,Berndt,etal.,2018; Makransky et al., 2019;…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDeveloping scales for assessing metaverse characteristics and testing their utility
Boo, C., & Suh, A. (2023) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2023.100366 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Brunswicker, S., Zhang, Y., Rashidian, C., & Linna, D. W. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2024.108516 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Zhong, Z., Zhang, G., Jin, S., Wang, J., Ma, N., & Feng, S. (2022) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-022-11115-3 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Presence refers to the "being there" of learners in the virtual environment, was measured with 5 items (e.g., The virtual environment seems real to me) from Makransky et al. (2017) and had a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.939.”
BackgroundInfluentialMulders, M. (2023) · Multimodal Technologies and Interaction · doi:10.3390/mti7030028 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Virtual reality and immersive approaches to contextual food testing
Hartmann, C., & Siegrist, M. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-814495-4.00016-7 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Saputro, S. D., & Setyawan, A. (2020) · JPI (Jurnal Pendidikan Indonesia) · doi:10.23887/jpi-undiksha.v9i3.23105 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Evaluating Autonomous Vehicle External Communication Using a Multi-Pedestrian VR Simulator
Tran, T. T. M., Parker, C., Yu, X., Dey, D., Martens, M., Bazilinskyy, P., & Tomitsch, M. (2024) · Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive Mobile Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies · doi:10.1145/3678506 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Primarily, it enhances the social presence in VR scenarios, which refers to the experience of sharing a space with another individual perceived as real [46].”
Kim, M., Oh, H. J., Choi, J. H., & Jung, Y. (2024) · Journal of Consumer Behaviour · doi:10.1002/cb.2405 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Liu, J., Ang, M. C., Chaw, J. K., Kor, A.-L., Ng, K. W., & Lam, M. C. (2025) · Technological Forecasting and Social Change · doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2025.124024 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Harrison, K., Vallina, L., Bue, A. C. C., Wenhold, H., & Moorman, J. D. (2018) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2018.1496024 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Face masks reduce interpersonal distance in virtual reality
Kroczek, L. O. H., Böhme, S., & Mühlberger, A. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-06086-x · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Raghu Raman, R., Kowalski, R. M., & Achuthan, K. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100712 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Xin, C., & Hsu, Y. (2022) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2022.2072898 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“…by low cost, time and space, strong interaction and high security, which provide solutions to improve the hardware conditions of traditional experiments and assist in experimental teaching, and have received wide attention in the fi eld of education (Makransky et al., 2017; Yip et al., 2019).”
- Authors
- Makransky, G., Lilleholt, L., & Aaby, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Southern Denmark (DK)
- Corresponding author
- Makransky, Guido
- Venue
- Computers in Human Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2017-07
- Volume
- 72
- Pages
- 276-285
- ISSN
- 0747-5632 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2594825291
- Cited by
- 424
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 76 · 2025: 78 · 2024: 78 · 2023: 54 · 2022: 47 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 2
- FWCI
- 17.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Computers in Human Behavior (publishedVersion)
- Research at the University of Copenhagen (University of Copenhagen) (publishedVersion)
- University of Southern Denmark Research Portal (University of Southern Denmark) (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Innovation Fund Denmark
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Flow Experience in Various Fields
- Social Sciences › Education › Online and Blended Learning
- Keywords
- presence, virtual reality, physical presence, social presence, self-presence, scale development, psychometric validation, item response theory, virtual reality learning, medical students, biology students
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