Measurement invariance conventions and reporting: The state of the art and future directions for psychological research

Putnick, Diane L.; Bornstein, Marc H.

doi:10.1016/j.dr.2016.06.004

Cited by 4,369Psychometric Methodologies and TestingEducational Assessment and PedagogyPsychological Testing and Assessment

Measurement invariance conventions and reporting: The state of the art and future directions for psychological research

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Putnick, Diane L., Bornstein, Marc H.·2016·Developmental Review

DOI 10.1016/j.dr.2016.06.004PMC PMC5145197

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Abstract

Measurement invariance assesses the psychometric equivalence of a construct across groups or across time. Measurement noninvariance suggests that a construct has a different structure or meaning to different groups or on different measurement occasions in the same group, and so the construct cannot be meaningfully tested or construed across groups or across time. Hence, prior to testing mean differences across groups or measurement occasions (e.g., boys and girls, pretest and posttest), or differential relations of the construct across groups, it is essential to assess the invariance of the construct. Conventions and reporting on measurement invariance are still in flux, and researchers are often left with limited understanding and inconsistent advice. Measurement invariance is tested and established in different steps. This report surveys the state of measurement invariance testing and reporting, and details the results of a literature review of studies that tested invariance. Most tests of measurement invariance include configural, metric, and scalar steps; a residual invariance step is reported for fewer tests. Alternative fit indices (AFIs) are reported as model fit criteria for the vast majority of tests; χ 2 is reported as the single index in a minority of invariance tests. Reporting AFIs is associated with higher levels of achieved invariance. Partial invariance is reported for about one-third of tests. In general, sample size, number of groups compared, and model size are unrelated to the level of invariance achieved. Implications for the future of measurement invariance testing, reporting, and best practices are discussed.

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Evidence of measurement invariance was determined based on changes in fit indices: ΔCFI ≤ 0.010 and ΔRMSEA ≤ 0.015.
“Evidence of invariance was determined based on changes in fit indices: ΔCFI ≤ 0.010 and ΔRMSEA ≤ 0.015 [64, 65].”
From Psychometric validation and measurement invariance of the Health-Promoting Lifestyle Profile II in Honduran university students (2025) · cites this paper as [64]
Differences observed between Spain and Italy in online sexual harassment perpetration are due to variations in prevalence rates, not discrepancies in participants' interpretation of the instrument.
“We can therefore conclude that the differences observed between countries are due to variations in prevalence rates, not discrepancies in participants’ interpretation of the instrument (Putnick & Bornstein, 2016; Vandenberg & Lance, 2000).”
From Online Sexual Harassment Perpetration Among Peer Adolescents: A Cross-National and Cross-Gender Study (2025) · cites this paper as Putnick & Bornstein, 2016
The metric model (fixed loadings) was better than the configural model (same variables between time points) with a CFI change of 0.005, RMSEA change of 0.006, and SRMR change of − 0.004.
“The metric model (fixed loadings) was better than the configural model (same variables between time points) with a CFI change of 0.005, RMSEA change of 0.006, and SRMR change of − 0.004; following the cutoff criteria suggested by Putnick and Bornstein41.”
From The impact of digital media on children’s intelligence while controlling for genetic differences in cognition and socioeconomic background (2022) · cites this paper as [41]

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Method
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Method
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Longitudinal Structural Equation Modeling
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Method
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Method
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Method
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Method
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Background
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Method
The consequences of ignoring measurement invariance for path coefficients in structural equation models
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Method
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Background
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Using ΔGoodness-of-Fit Indexes in Assessing Mean Structure Invariance
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Modeling differentiation of cognitive abilities within the higher-order factor model using moderated factor analysis
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Evaluating Sensitivity of Parameters of Interest to Measurement Invariance in Latent Variable Models
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Impact of Measurement Invariance on Construct Correlations, Mean Differences, and Relations With External Correlates
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Background
The Role of Referent Indicators in Tests of Measurement Invariance
Johnson, E., Meade, A. W., & DuVernet, A. M. (2009) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705510903206014 · Cited by 79 · cited 2× · see citing works
“38 articles per year), and Johnson et al. (2009) reviewed a 3-year period from 2005-2007 and uncovered 153 articles on measurement invariance (51 articles per year).”
BackgroundInfluential
Cross-cultural comparisons using non-invariant measurement items
Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (1998) · Applied Behavioral Science Review · doi:10.1016/s1068-8595(99)80006-3 · Cited by 78 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Cheung and Rensvold (1998) describe a procedure for teasing apart the group difference attributable to item responses and unequal item-construct relations.”
Background
Comparisons of Three Empirical Methods for Partial Factorial Invariance: Forward, Backward, and Factor-Ratio Tests
Jung, E., & Yoon, M. (2016) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705511.2015.1138092 · Cited by 71 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Jung and Yoon (2016) compared backward, forward, and factor-ratio methods for identifying noninvariant parameters.”
Score-based tests of measurement invariance: use in practice
Wang, T., Merkle, E., & Zeileis, A. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00438 · Cited by 66 · cited 1× · see citing works
“More research is needed on the performance of these tests across different conditions, and methods are currently only implemented using maximum likelihood estimation, but these procedures could be applied to other estimation methods in future research (Wang et al., 2014).”
Method
Tests of measurement invariance failed to support the application of the "then-test".
Nolte, S., Elsworth, G., Sinclair, A., & Osborne, R. (2009) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2009.01.021 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
A comparison of sequential and nonsequential specification searches in testing factorial invariance
Yoon, M., & Kim, E. (2013) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-013-0430-2 · Cited by 53 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Yoon and Kim (2014) suggested that sequentially releasing constraints (backward method) based on the highest modification index has much smaller Type I (false positive) error rates than releasing all problematic constraints in a single pass.”
Method
A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Mothers’ Beliefs about Their Parenting Very Young Children
Senese, V. P., Bornstein, M. H., Haynes, O., Rossi, G., & Venuti, P. (2012) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2012.02.006 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Self-citation
Four Unresolved Problems in Studies of Factorial Invariance.
Millsap, R. E. (2005) · Cited by 50 · see citing works
When are item intercept differences substantively relevant in measurement invariance testing?
Meuleman, B. (2012) · VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-531-18898-0_13 · Cited by 27 · cited 3× · see citing works
“To address this issue, Meuleman (2012) and Oberski (2014) suggested ways to compute the impact of a noninvariant parameter on the change in the estimated latent mean. Rather than relying on nested model comparisons or modification indices that are sensitive to sample size, Meuleman's (2012) and Oberski's (2014) proced…”
Background
Comparison of Multiple-Indicators, Multiple-Causes– and Item Response Theory–Based Analyses of Subgroup Differences
Willse, J. T., & Goodman, J. T. (2008) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/0013164407312601 · Cited by 21 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…using the weighted least squares mean and variance adjusted estimator in Mplus (WLSMV; for estimating models with categorical variables; Muthén & Muthén, 2010) and multiple indicators multiple causes models (MIMIC; an alternative method of testing measurement invariance; Willse & Goodman, 2008).”
Method
Methods, theories, and empirical applications in the social sciences : Festschrift for Peter Schmidt
Salzborn, S., Davidov, E., & Reinecke, J. (2012) · doi:10.1007/978-3-531-17130-2 · Cited by 8 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

Susceptibility to misinformation about COVID-19 around the world
Roozenbeek, J., Schneider, C. R., Dryhurst, S., Kerr, J., Freeman, A. L. J., Recchia, G., van der Bles, A. M., & van der Linden, S. (2020) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.201199 · Cited by 1,447 · see citing works
“We thus find support for weak measurement invariance and, in line with Putnick & Bornstein’s [59] recommendation, proceed with the analysis and interpret this as a minor limitation to our study. royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos R.Soc.”
Result
Individual differences and changes in subjective wellbeing during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Zacher, H., & Rudolph, C. W. (2021) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0000702 · Cited by 643 · see citing works
A Primer to (Cross-Cultural) Multi-Group Invariance Testing Possibilities in R
Fischer, R. D., & Karl, J. A. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01507 · Cited by 396 · see citing works
Educational gains of <scp>in‐person</scp> vs. distance learning in primary and secondary schools: A natural experiment during the <scp>COVID</scp> ‐19 pandemic school closures in Switzerland
Tomasik, M. J., Helbling, L. A., & Moser, U. (2021) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1002/ijop.12728 · Cited by 378 · see citing works
“Following Chen (2007); as cited in Putnick & Bornstein, 2016), the criteria we used for assessing invariance were ΔCFI < .01, ΔRMSEA < .015 and ΔSRMR < .030 (for weak invariance only) or ΔSRMR < .015 (for strong and strict invariance).”
Method
Psychometric Properties of the Climate Change Worry Scale
Stewart, A. E. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18020494 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Towards psychological herd immunity: Cross-cultural evidence for two prebunking interventions against COVID-19 misinformation
Basol, M., Roozenbeek, J., Berriche, M., Uenal, F., McClanahan, W. P., & Linden, S. V. D. (2021) · Big Data & Society · doi:10.1177/20539517211013868 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
“Additionally, failing to reach a certain level of invariance should not prevent analyses so long as researchers note this limitation, which we do here (Putnick and Bornstein, 2016).”
Background
Measurement invariance in the social sciences: Historical development, methodological challenges, state of the art, and future perspectives
Leitgöb, H., Seddig, D., Asparouhov, T., Behr, D., Davidov, E., Roover, K. D., Jak, S., Meitinger, K. M., Menold, N., Muthén, B., et al. (2022) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2022.102805 · Cited by 306 · see citing works
“Scalar invariance implies that not only the factor loadings but also the item intercepts are equal across groups: A state of the art implementation of the global testing approach, based on the described comparison of a sequence of nested MGCFA models, is provided in Putnick and Bornstein (2016).”
Trust in scientists and their role in society across 68 countries
Cologna, V., Mede, N. G., Berger, S., Besley, J. C., Brick, C. A., Joubert, M., Maibach, E. W., Mihelj, S., Орескес, Н., Schäfer, M. S., et al. (2025) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-024-02090-5 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
“This is a common caveat of multilingual survey research and is to some extent unavoidable 47 .”
Trust in Robots: Challenges and Opportunities
Kok, B. C., & Soh, H. (2020) · Current Robotics Reports · doi:10.1007/s43154-020-00029-y · Cited by 227 · see citing works
“Furthermore, the literature is relatively silent on the topic of measurement invariance [102, 103]: we found only a single mention in [101].”
Background
Measuring stress in clinical and nonclinical subjects using a German adaptation of the Perceived Stress Scale
Schneider, E. E., Schönfelder, S., Domke-Wolf, M., & Wessa, M. (2020) · International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2020.03.004 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Evaluation of Pressing Issues in Ecological Momentary Assessment
Stone, A. A., Schneider, S., & Smyth, J. M. (2022) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-080921-083128 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
“…undergo painstaking scrutiny to ensure this consistency by conducting tests of measurement noninvariance or differential item functioning, which occurs when different groups (e.g., men versus women) interpret the content of certain items differently (Mellenberg 1982, Putnick & Bornstein 2016).”
Hidden Invalidity Among 15 Commonly Used Measures in Social and Personality Psychology
Hussey, I., & Hughes, S. (2020) · Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2515245919882903 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
“…unconstrained model provides adequate fit in each of the groups), (b) metric invariance (or weak factorial invariance; i.e., equivalence of factor loadings), and (c) scalar invariance (or strong factorial invariance; i.e., equivalence of item intercepts, or thresholds; Putnick & Bornstein, 2016).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Best-Practice Recommendations for Producers, Evaluators, and Users of Methodological Literature Reviews
Aguinis, H., Ramani, R. S., & Alabduljader, N. (2023) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428120943281 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
“…and Lance’s article was published over 20 years ago and before recent methodological advancements, such as the use of Bayesian methods to assess measurement invariance (Kim et al., 2017), or more recent reviews of measurement invariance (e.g., Putnick & Bornstein, 2016; Schmitt & Kuljanin, 2008).”
Method
Valid group comparisons can be made with the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9): A measurement invariance study across groups by demographic characteristics
Villarreal‐Zegarra, D., Copez-Lonzoy, A. J. E., Bernabé‐Ortiz, A., Meléndez‐Torres, G. J., & Bazo‐Alvarez, J. C. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0221717 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
“However, because measurement invariance between groups has not been evaluated in these studies, differences between groups may reflect measurement bias rather than true differences in depression [10].”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Why Full, Partial, or Approximate Measurement Invariance Are Not a Prerequisite for Meaningful and Valid Group Comparisons
Robitzsch, A., & Lüdtke, O. (2023) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705511.2023.2191292 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Psychometric Properties of a Spanish Version of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale in General Population of Lima, Peru
Huarcaya-Victoria, J., Villarreal-Zegarra, D., Podestá, A., & Luna-Cuadros, M. A. (2020) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-020-00354-5 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
“If two or more groups reach invariance, it is assumed that comparisons can be made between these groups (Putnick and Bornstein 2016).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Human Flourishing in Cross Cultural Settings. Evidence From the United States, China, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, and Mexico
Węziak‐Białowolska, D., McNeely, E., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01269 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
“In the absence of full measurement invariance confirmation, partial measurement invariance (Steenkamp and Baumgartner, 1998; Putnick and Bornstein, 2016) was also examined.”
MethodInfluential
Development and validation of a climate change perceptions scale
van Valkengoed, A. M., Steg, L., & Perlaviciute, G. (2021) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101652 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Leader‐signaled knowledge hiding: Effects on employees' job attitudes and empowerment
Offergelt, F., Spörrle, M., Moser, K., & Shaw, J. D. (2018) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2343 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Reliability, Validity, and Measurement Invariance of the General Anxiety Disorder Scale Among Chinese Medical University Students
Zhang, C., Wang, T., Zeng, P., Zhao, M., Zhang, G., Zhai, S., Meng, L., Wang, Y., & Liu, D. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.648755 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
“We examined measurement invariance of item parameters using differential item functioning (DIF) methods (59).”
Method
The clinical sustainability assessment tool: measuring organizational capacity to promote sustainability in healthcare
Malone, S., Prewitt, K., Hackett, R., Lin, J. C., McKay, V., Walsh-Bailey, C., & Luke, D. A. (2021) · Implementation Science Communications · doi:10.1186/s43058-021-00181-2 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
COVID-19 anxiety scale (CAS): Development and psychometric properties
Silva, W. A. D., Brito, T. R. D. S., & Pereira, C. (2020) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-020-01195-0 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Development of a Short and ICD-11 Compatible Measure for DSM-5 Maladaptive Personality Traits Using Ant Colony Optimization Algorithms
Kerber, A., Schultze, M., Müller, S., Rühling, R. M., Wright, A. G. C., Spitzer, C., Krueger, R. F., Knaevelsrud, C., & Zimmermann, J. (2020) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191120971848 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
“According to Putnick and Bornstein (2016), a difference .01 for CFI and SRMR as well as overlapping 90% CIs for the RMSEA between subsequent levels of measurement invariance indicate acceptable relative fit.”
Method
Constructing STEM identity: An expanded structural model for STEM identity research
Dou, R., & Cian, H. (2021) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21734 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Ya’at’eeh: Race-reimaged belongingness factors, academic outcomes, and goal pursuits among Indigenous community college students
Fong, C. J., Alejandro, A. J., Krou, M. R., Segovia, J., & Johnston-Ashton, K. (2019) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.101805 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Continuity and Stability in Development
Bornstein, M. H., Putnick, D. L., & Esposito, G. (2017) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/cdep.12221 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
“quate measurement (38), varying contexts, real development,”
Self-citation
Re-understanding the antecedents of functional foods purchase: Mediating effect of purchase attitude and moderating effect of food neophobia
Huang, L., Bai, L., Zhang, X., & Gong, S. (2018) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2018.11.001 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Systematic review of the factor structure and measurement invariance of the patient health questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) and validation of the Portuguese version in community settings
Lamela, D. J. P. D. V., Soreira, C. S. S., Matos, P., & Morais, A. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.06.066 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Structural validity of the Insomnia Severity Index: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Manzar, M. D., Jahrami, H. A., & Bahammam, A. S. (2021) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2021.101531 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Shared identity and shared information in social media: development and validation of the identity bubble reinforcement scale
Kaakinen, M., Sirola, A., Savolainen, I., & Oksanen, A. (2018) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2018.1544910 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
“A nonsignificant change in the chi-square statistic (with 95% confidence interval) and a decrease in CFI of less than −.01 were considered as evidence for the tested measurement invariance (Putnick & Bornstein, 2016).”
Method
Psychological, psychiatric, and behavioral sciences measurement scales: best practice guidelines for their development and validation
Stefana, A., Damiani, S., Granziol, U., Provenzani, U., Solmi, M., Youngstrom, E. A., & Fusar‐Poli, P. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1494261 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
“Measurement invariance is typically tested through multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis (MGCFA) (Putnick and Bornstein, 2016), which involves three primary stages with increasing levels of restriction: configural invariance, which tests whether the same factor structure holds across groups;…”
Trends in self-reported psychological distress among college and university students from 2010 to 2018
Knapstad, M., Sivertsen, B., Knudsen, A. K., Smith, O. R. F., Aarø, L. E., Lønning, K. J., & Skogen, J. C. (2021) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291719003350 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
“Overall, the 1-factor model yielded a satisfactory fit (RMSEA = 0.077, CFI = 0.938, TLI = 0.932).”
MethodInfluential
Long-Term Stability of Language Performance in Very Preterm, Moderate-Late Preterm, and Term Children
Putnick, D. L., Bornstein, M. H., Eryigit-Madzwamuse, S., & Wolke, D. (2017) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2016.09.006 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Self-citation
“Mom, dad, look at me”: The development of the Parental Phubbing Scale
Pancani, L., Gerosa, T., Gui, M., & Riva, P. (2020) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407520964866 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
“Strong measurement invariance was evaluated constraining items intercepts to be equivalent across groups, to check whether latent mean differences accounted for all the mean differences in the shared variance of the observable items (Putnick & Bornstein, 2016).”
Method
Is the PHQ-9 a unidimensional measure of depression? A 58,272-participant study.
Bianchi, R., Verkuilen, J., Toker, S., Schonfeld, I. S., Gerber, M., Brähler, E., & Kroenke, K. (2022) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0001124 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
The Validation of the German Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale in the Context of Mental Health
Heissel, A., Pietrek, A., Flunger, B., Fydrich, T., Rapp, M. A., Heinzel, S., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2018) · European Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1027/2512-8442/a000017 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
The cultural dimension of intergroup conspiracy theories
van Prooijen, J., & Song, M. (2020) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12471 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“Given the marginal fit of the basic configural model, we explored the data for psychometrically problematic items (Putnick & Bornstein, 2016).”
BackgroundMethod
Body appreciation around the world: Measurement invariance of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) across 65 nations, 40 languages, gender identities, and age
Swami, V., Tran, U. S., Stieger, S., Aavik, T., Ranjbar, H. A., Adebayo, S. O., Afhami, R., Ahmed, O., Aimé, A., Akel, M., et al. (2023) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2023.07.010 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Measuring cognitive reflection without maths: Development and validation of the verbal cognitive reflection test
Sirota, M., Dewberry, C., Juanchich, M., Valuš, L., & Marshall, A. C. (2020) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.2213 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
The pandemic of online research in times of COVID-19
Man, J. D., Campbell, L., Tabana, H., & Wouters, E. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-043866 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Translation and validation of body image instruments: An addendum to Swami and Barron (2019) in the form of frequently asked questions
Swami, V., Todd, J., & Barron, D. S. (2021) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2021.03.002 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
The dire disregard of measurement invariance testing in psychological science.
Maassen, E., D'Urso, E. D., van Assen, M. A. L. M., Nuijten, M. B., Roover, K. D., & Wicherts, J. M. (2023) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/met0000624 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Ostracism breeds depression: Longitudinal associations between ostracism and depression over a three-year-period
Rudert, S. C., Janke, S., & Greifeneder, R. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100118 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
“We detected no violation of metric invariance as deviations between model ﬁt indices (CFI, TLI, and RMSEA) did not exceed the critical value of .01 ( Putnick and Bornstein, 2016 ).”
Influential
Cyberchondria in the age of COVID-19
Jokić‐Begić, N., Korajlija, A. L., & Mikac, U. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0243704 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Misbehaving in the Corona crisis: The role of anxiety and unfounded beliefs
Erceg, N., Ružojčić, M., & Galić, Z. (2020) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-020-01040-4 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Are the PHQ-9 and GAD-7 Suitable for Use in India? A Psychometric Analysis
Man, J. D., Absetz, P., Sathish, T., Desloge, A., Haregu, T., Oldenburg, B. F., Johnson, L. C. M., Thankappan, K. R., & Williams, E. D. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.676398 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Contextualized Measurement Scale Adaptation: A 4-Step Tutorial for Health Psychology Research
Ambuehl, B., & Inauen, J. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191912775 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“Furthermore, sampling strategies to include a broad range of participants with different perceptions of the concept and different contexts is one aspect of preventing biases because of measurement invariance [88].”
Background
Developmental relationships and school success: How teachers, parents, and friends affect educational outcomes and what actions students say matter most
Sethi, J., & Scales, P. C. (2020) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101904 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Creativity as a Means to Well-Being in Times of COVID-19 Pandemic: Results of a Cross-Cultural Study
Tang, M., Hofreiter, S., Reiter‐Palmon, R., Bai, X., & Murugavel, V. R. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.601389 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Physical activity, cognition and academic performance: an analysis of mediating and confounding relationships in primary school children
McPherson, A., Mackay, L. M., Kunkel, J., & Duncan, S. (2018) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-018-5863-1 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
“As such, the Models are not equivalent for different age groups and group comparison cannot be made [23].”
Background
Complex Thinking and Sustainable Social Development: Validity and Reliability of the COMPLEX-21 Scale
Tobón, S., & Luna-Nemecio, J. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13126591 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
A comparative study on the effect of ChatGPT recommendation and AI recommender systems on the formation of a consideration set
Chang, W., & Park, J. (2024) · Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services · doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2024.103743 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Investigating tourists' risk information processing
Aliperti, G., & Cruz, A. M. (2019) · Annals of Tourism Research · doi:10.1016/j.annals.2019.102803 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Peer defending as a multidimensional behavior: Development and validation of the Defending Behaviors Scale
Lambe, L. J., & Craig, W. (2019) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2019.12.001 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Utrecht Gender Dysphoria Scale - Gender Spectrum (UGDS-GS): Construct validity among transgender, nonbinary, and LGBQ samples
McGuire, J. K., Berg, D. R., Catalpa, J. M., Morrow, Q. J., Fish, J. N., Rider, G. N., Steensma, T. D., Cohen‐Kettenis, P. T., & Spencer, K. G. (2020) · International Journal of Transgender Health · doi:10.1080/26895269.2020.1723460 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
“For the current study, we used a series of criteria for invariance including a .01 change in CFI (DCFI; Chueng & Rensvold, 2002), a .015 change in DRMSEA, and .030 change in DSRMR for metric invariance or a .015 change in DSRMR for scalar invariance (Chen, 2007; Putnick & Bornstein, 2016).”
Method
Psychometric properties of an Arabic translation of the Functionality Appreciation Scale (FAS) in Lebanese adults
Swami, V., Todd, J., Azzi, V., Malaeb, D. N., Dine, A. S. E., Obeïd, S., & Hallit, S. R. (2022) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.07.008 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Displacement of peer play by screen time: associations with toddler development
Putnick, D. L., Trinh, M.-H., Sundaram, R., Bell, E. M., Ghassabian, A., Robinson, S. L., & Yeung, E. H. (2022) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1038/s41390-022-02261-y · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“For moderation models, significant differences in scaling-corrected χ(2) tests for the two models (Δχ(2)) indicated that one or more model parameters were moderated by group.(47) As is common in longitudinal studies, sample attrition was an issue.”
Self-citation
The Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Need Frustration at Work Scale: A Validation Study
Olafsen, A. H., Halvari, H., & Frølund, C. W. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.697306 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“(2), Measurement invariance (MI) across the samples using multi-group CFA, testing for configural, metric, scalar, and residual invariance (Putnick and Bornstein, 2016) was evaluated in two steps.”
Method
Inequality in Socio-Emotional Skills: A Cross-Cohort Comparison
Attanasio, O. P., Blundell, R. W., Conti, G., & Mason, G. (2020) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104171 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Trust in scientists and their role in society across 68 countriesPreprint
Cologna, V., Mede, N. G., Berger, S., Besley, J. C., Brick, C. A., Joubert, M., Maibach, E. W., Mihelj, S., Орескес, Н., Schäfer, M. S., et al. (2024) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/6ay7s · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Better Government, Happier Residents? Quality of Government and Life Satisfaction in China
Liu, H., Gao, H., & Huang, Q. (2019) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-019-02172-2 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Maslach Burnout Inventory – General Survey: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Measurement Properties
De Beer, L. T., van der Vaart, L., Escaffi-Schwarz, M., De Witte, H., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2024) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000797 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
“This variation may be attributed to the fact that these studies were conducted over the last several decades, during which understanding (e.g., Putnick & Bornstein, 2016 ) and methodological checklists (e.g., van de Schoot et al., 2012 ) for testing for invariance evolved significantly.”
Background
Measurement invariance of assessments of depression (PHQ-9) and anxiety (GAD-7) across sex, strata and linguistic backgrounds in a European-wide sample of patients after Traumatic Brain Injury
Teymoori, A., Real, R. G. L., Gorbunova, A., Haghish, E. F., Anđelić, N., Wilson, L., Asendorf, T., Menon, D. K., & von Steinbüchel, N. (2019) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.10.035 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Fortune favours the digitally mature: the impact of digital maturity on the organisational resilience of SME retailers during COVID-19
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“We applied a cutoff criterion of a difference of CFI ( Δ CFI) of 0.01 as it is proposed as appropriate to assume invariance between two models [75,76].”
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“…use the following critical values to assess invariance: -0.01 Δ CFI for metric and scalar invariance and .015 for strict invariance, 0.015 Δ RMSEA for metric and scalar invariance, 0.030 Δ SRMR for metric invariance and 0.015 Δ SRMR for scalar invariance (Putnick & Bornstein, 2016; Chen, 2007).”
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Authors: Putnick, D. L., & Bornstein, M. H.
Affiliations: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (US)
Corresponding author: Putnick, Diane L.
ORCID: Putnick, Diane L.
Bornstein, Marc H.
Venue: Developmental Review
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2016-09
Volume: 41
Pages: 71-90
ISSN: 0273-2297 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2016.06.004
PMC: PMC5145197
OpenAlex: W2469775770
Cited by: 4,369
References: 75
Citations by year: 2026: 988 · 2025: 736 · 2024: 653 · 2023: 560 · 2022: 520 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 270 · 2019: 128 · 2018: 40 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 2
FWCI: 64.55
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Developmental Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: NIH
NICHD
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Education › Educational Assessment and Pedagogy
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
Keywords: measurement invariance, configural invariance, metric invariance, scalar invariance, partial invariance, cross-group comparison, longitudinal assessment, best practices

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Measurement invariance conventions and reporting: The state of the art and future directions for psychological research

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