Educational gains of in‐person vs. distance learning in primary and secondary schools: A natural experiment during the COVID ‐19 pandemic school closures in Switzerland
Open accessAbstract
Using data from a computer-based formative feedback system, we compare learning gains in the 8 weeks of school closures related to the COVID-19 pandemic in Switzerland with learning gains in the 8 weeks before these school closures. The school performance in mathematics and language of N = 28,685 pupils is modelled in second-order piecewise latent growth models with strict measurement invariance for the two periods under investigation. While secondary school pupils remain largely unaffected by the school closures in terms of learning gains, for primary school pupils learning slows down and at the same time interindividual variance in learning gains increases. Distance learning arrangements seem an effective means to substitute for in-person learning, at least in an emergency situation, but not all pupils benefit to the same degree.
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Children from families with low SES are less likely to have access to remote learning, are less often provided with active learning assistance from their schools, and spend less time on learning than children from families with high SES.
“Children from families with a low SES are less likely to have access to remote learning (UNESCO, 2021), are less often provided with active learning assistance from their schools (Tomasik et al., 2020), and spend less time on learning (Meeter, 2021) than children from families with a high SES.”
From Effects of COVID-19-Related School Closures on Student Achievement-A Systematic Review (2021) · cites this paper as Tomasik et al., 2020
Younger children were more negatively affected in their learning than older children were (−0.37 SD vs. −0.10 SD; Tomasik et al., 2020).
“First, the main finding was that younger children were more negatively affected in their learning than older children were (-0.37 SD vs.−0.10 SD; Tomasik et al., 2020).”
From Effects of COVID-19-Related School Closures on Student Achievement-A Systematic Review (2021) · cites this paper as Tomasik et al., 2020
The difference in augmented learning between face-to-face and distance teaching is ∆χ2(1) = 8.86 and is significant (p < 0.001).
“This difference of ∆χ 2 (1) = 8.86 is significant (p < 0.001) [13] (p. 6).”
From Effects of Pandemic-Related School Closures on Pupils’ Performance and Learning in Selected Countries: A Rapid Review (2021) · cites this paper as [13]
Particularly inter-individual differences in learning increased sharply during the time of distance learning.
“Tomasik et al. [13] point out that particularly inter-individual differences in learning increased sharply during the time of distance learning and that a decrease in the augmented learning can have negative long-term consequences [13] (p. 7).”
From Effects of Pandemic-Related School Closures on Pupils’ Performance and Learning in Selected Countries: A Rapid Review (2021) · cites this paper as [13]
Tomasik, Helbling, and Moser (2020) reported that primary-school students in Switzerland made more than twice as much progress during in-person learning as during the eight-week school closure.
“Tomasik, Helbling, and Moser (2020) found learning progress of primary-school students in Switzerland during in-person learning to be more than twice as high compared to the progress made during the eight-week school closure.”
From Learning loss during Covid-19: An early systematic review (2022) · cites this paper as Tomasik, Helbling, & Moser (2020)
A decrease in augmented learning can have negative long-term consequences.
“Tomasik et al. [13] point out that particularly inter-individual differences in learning increased sharply during the time of distance learning and that a decrease in the augmented learning can have negative long-term consequences [13] (p. 7).”
From Effects of Pandemic-Related School Closures on Pupils’ Performance and Learning in Selected Countries: A Rapid Review (2021) · cites this paper as [13]
No significant differences were reported in three of the reviewed studies.
“In contrast, no significant differences were reported in three studies [4,8,13].”
From Effects of Pandemic-Related School Closures on Pupils’ Performance and Learning in Selected Countries: A Rapid Review (2021) · cites this paper as [13]
The increase in learning progress during face-to-face teaching was ν = 0.012 (SE = 0.005, p < 0.05).
“The increase during face-to-face teaching was ν inp = 0.012 (SEν = 0.005, p < 0.05) and during distance teaching it was ν dis = 0.008 (SEν = 0.004, p = 0.05) [13] (p. 6).”
From Effects of Pandemic-Related School Closures on Pupils’ Performance and Learning in Selected Countries: A Rapid Review (2021) · cites this paper as [13]
In Tomasik et al.'s data, effects on learning progress could be found for primary education, in contrast to secondary education.
“At this point, the results relating to primary education were of interest, where effects could be found on the basis of the data in contrast to secondary education [13] (p. 1).”
From Effects of Pandemic-Related School Closures on Pupils’ Performance and Learning in Selected Countries: A Rapid Review (2021) · cites this paper as [13]
Tomasik et al.'s analyses did not compare the best possible face-to-face teaching with the best possible distance teaching, which must be taken into account when interpreting the results.
“The authors of the study point out that their analyses did not compare the best possible face-to-face teaching with the best possible distance teaching.This must be taken into account when interpreting the results [13] (p. 7), Table 3.”
From Effects of Pandemic-Related School Closures on Pupils’ Performance and Learning in Selected Countries: A Rapid Review (2021) · cites this paper as [13]
Tomasik et al. (2020) found no impact on secondary students.
“while Tomasik et al. (2020) found primary students to be impacted, they found no impact on secondary students.”
From Learning loss during Covid-19: An early systematic review (2022) · cites this paper as Tomasik et al. (2020)
The increase in learning progress during distance teaching was ν = 0.008 (SE = 0.004, p = 0.05).
“The increase during face-to-face teaching was ν inp = 0.012 (SEν = 0.005, p < 0.05) and during distance teaching it was ν dis = 0.008 (SEν = 0.004, p = 0.05) [13] (p. 6).”
From Effects of Pandemic-Related School Closures on Pupils’ Performance and Learning in Selected Countries: A Rapid Review (2021) · cites this paper as [13]
In Swiss secondary education, no significant differences were found between the learning progress of pupils in face-to-face and in distance learning (∆χ2(1) = 1.01, p = 0.31).
“In contrast to primary education, in the case of secondary education, no significant differences could be found between the learning progress of pupils in face-to-face and those in distance learning (∆χ 2 (1) = 1.01, p = 0.31).”
From Effects of Pandemic-Related School Closures on Pupils’ Performance and Learning in Selected Countries: A Rapid Review (2021) · cites this paper as [13]
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- Authors
- Tomasik, M. J., Helbling, L. A., & Moser, U.
- Affiliations
- Witten/Herdecke University (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Tomasik, Martin J.
- Venue
- International Journal of Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2020-11-24
- Volume
- 56
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 566-576
- ISSN
- 0020-7594 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-066X
- PMC
- PMC7753520
- OpenAlex
- W3106617860
- Cited by
- 378
- References
- 55
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 45 · 2024: 60 · 2023: 87 · 2022: 97 · 2021: 71 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 97.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- International Journal of Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (acceptedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Education during COVID-19 pandemic
- Social Sciences › Education › Online Learning Methods and Innovations
- Social Sciences › Education › E-Learning and COVID-19
- Keywords
- COVID-19 school closures, distance education, in-person learning, learning gains, elementary school students, high school students, mathematics achievement, language achievement, measurement invariance, emergency remote education, Switzerland
- MeSH terms
- Academic Performance, COVID-19, Adolescent, Child, Educational Status, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Schools, Switzerland, Education, Distance, Pandemics
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