The sexual dimorphism of obesity
Open accessAbstract
The NIH has recently highlighted the importance of sexual dimorphisms and has mandated inclusion of both sexes in clinical trials and basic research. In this review we highlight new and novel ways sex hormones influence body adiposity and the metabolic syndrome. Understanding how and why metabolic processes differ by sex will enable clinicians to target and personalize therapies based on gender. Adipose tissue function and deposition differ by sex. Females differ with respect to distribution of adipose tissues, males tend to accrue more visceral fat, leading to the classic android body shape which has been highly correlated to increased cardiovascular risk; whereas females accrue more fat in the subcutaneous depot prior to menopause, a feature which affords protection from the negative consequences associated with obesity and the metabolic syndrome. After menopause, fat deposition and accrual shift to favor the visceral depot. This shift is accompanied by a parallel increase in metabolic risk reminiscent to that seen in men. A full understanding of the physiology behind why, and by what mechanisms, adipose tissues accumulate in specific depots and how these depots differ metabolically by sex is important in efforts of prevention of obesity and chronic disease. Estrogens, directly or through activation of their receptors on adipocytes and in adipose tissues, facilitate adipose tissue deposition and function. Evidence suggests that estrogens augment the sympathetic tone differentially to the adipose tissue depots favoring lipid accumulation in the subcutaneous depot in women and visceral fat deposition in men. At the level of adipocyte function, estrogens and their receptors influence the expandability of fat cells enhancing the expandability in the subcutaneous depot and inhibiting it in the visceral depot. Sex hormones clearly influence adipose tissue function and deposition, determining how to capture and utilize their function in a time of caloric surfeit, requires more information. The key will be harnessing the beneficial effects of sex hormones in such a way as to provide 'healthy' adiposity.
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A notable sexual dimorphism exists in body fat composition and adipocyte metabolism, which is influenced by sex steroids that include estrogens and androgens.
“A notable sexual dimorphism exists in body fat composition and adipocyte metabolism, which is influenced by sex steroids that include estrogens and androgens (51) ( Figure 1 ).”
From Metabolic impact of endogenously produced estrogens by adipose tissue in females and males across the lifespan (2025) · cites this paper as [51]
The Introduction and section 3 describe sex differences in fat distribution and adipocyte lipolysis, while sections 3 and 8 describe estrogen’s effects on adipose tissue. Section 8 mentions androgens as precursors converted to estrogens, but the passages do not establish a separate androgen effect on body-fat composition or adipocyte metabolism. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredA greater number of small adipocytes has been associated with improved insulin sensitivity, reduced inflammation, and less ectopic lipid accumulation.
“A greater number of small adipocytes has been associated with improved insulin sensitivity, reduced inflammation, and less ectopic lipid accumulation, as the production of new cells leads to a greater capacity for nutrient storage (51).”
From Metabolic impact of endogenously produced estrogens by adipose tissue in females and males across the lifespan (2025) · cites this paper as [51]
Section 5 says that hyperplasia produces small adipocytes that are more insulin-sensitive and have greater storage capacity. It also links inadequate lipid storage to ectopic deposition, supporting that part of the explanation. The paper discusses inflammation in relation to hypoxia and visceral fat, but does not directly associate a greater number of small adipocytes with reduced inflammation. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn humans, fat deposits depend on gender.
“In humans, fat deposits depend on the gender of the individual (Palmer and Clegg, 2015).”
From Mitochondrial Activity and Dynamics Changes Regarding Metabolism in Ageing and Obesity (2017) · cites this paper as Palmer and Clegg, 2015
Men tend to accumulate visceral fat whereas women accrue more subcutaneous depots prior to menopause, but after menopause fat depots in women shift to visceral depots.
“Men tend to accumulate visceral fat whereas women accrue more subcutaneous depots prior to menopause but, after menopause, fat depots in women shift to visceral depots (Palmer and Clegg, 2015).”
From Mitochondrial Activity and Dynamics Changes Regarding Metabolism in Ageing and Obesity (2017) · cites this paper as Palmer and Clegg, 2015
Oestrogens and their receptors favour lipid accumulation in subcutaneous depot in women but visceral fat deposition in men.
“The cause of this difference resides in sexual hormones. Oestrogens and their receptors favour lipid accumulation in subcutaneous depot in women but visceral fat deposition in men.”
From Mitochondrial Activity and Dynamics Changes Regarding Metabolism in Ageing and Obesity (2017) · cites this paper as Palmer and Clegg, 2015
Differences in metabolism of visceral and subcutaneous fat have been related to higher risk of metabolic syndrome in men than women due to higher free fatty acid production in visceral fat than subcutaneous fat.
“The differences in the metabolism of visceral and subcutaneous fat has been related to a higher risk of metabolic syndrome in men than in women due to a higher free fatty acid production in visceral fat than in subcutaneous fat (Palmer and Clegg, 2015).”
From Mitochondrial Activity and Dynamics Changes Regarding Metabolism in Ageing and Obesity (2017) · cites this paper as Palmer and Clegg, 2015
In humans, fat deposits depend on the gender of the individual.
“In humans, fat deposits depend on the gender of the individual (Palmer and Clegg, 2015).”
From Mitochondrial Activity and Dynamics Changes Regarding Metabolism in Ageing and Obesity (2017) · cites this paper as Palmer and Clegg, 2015
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Self-citation
- Authors
- Palmer, B. F., & Clegg, D. J.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center (US)
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Clegg, Deborah J.
- Venue
- Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-02
- Volume
- 402
- Pages
- 113-119
- ISSN
- 0303-7207 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4326001
- OpenAlex
- W2078575306
- Cited by
- 919
- References
- 74
- Citations by year
- 2026: 84 · 2025: 108 · 2024: 82 · 2023: 74 · 2022: 112 · 2021: 96 · 2020: 93 · 2019: 69 · 2018: 67 · 2017: 65 · 2016: 47 · 2015: 21
- FWCI
- 8.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (P01DK088761)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Adipokines, Inflammation, and Metabolic Diseases
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiovascular Disease and Adiposity
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Adipose Tissue and Metabolism
- Keywords
- sexual dimorphism, obesity, sex hormones, estrogen, estrogen receptor, adipose tissue depots, visceral fat, subcutaneous adipose tissue, menopause, metabolic syndrome, sympathetic tone, cardiovascular risk
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Estrogens, Female, Humans, Male, Obesity, Organ Specificity, Risk Factors, Sex Characteristics, Estrogen Receptor alpha, Subcutaneous Fat, Intra-Abdominal Fat, Adiposity
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