The molecular forms of Anopheles gambiae: a phenotypic perspective

May combine two claims.

Larval adaptations for temporary versus permanent freshwater habitats explain distribution discontinuities of the molecular forms and support ecological speciation.

“Larval adaptations to exploit temporary vs. ‘permanent’ freshwater habitats account for discontinuities in distribution of the molecular forms (Diabate et al. 2008) and provide evidence for ecological speciation (e.g., (Schluter, 2001).”

• cites Diabate et al. 2008 sourceSupported
• cites Schluter, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Allozymes and microsatellites outside chromosome II inversions showed no marked differentiation between chromosomal forms, but fixed rDNA spacer differences on the X chromosome separated Mopti from Savanna and Bamako in Mali.

“No marked differentiation was found between the chromosomal forms using allozymes (Chianchi et al. 1983) and microsatellites outside inversions on chromosome II (Lanzaro et al., 1998), but fixed differences were found in the rDNA intergenic spacer located on the X chromosome separating Mopti from both Savanna and Bamako chromosomal forms in Mali (Favia et al., 1997).”

• cites Chianchi et al. 1983Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Lanzaro et al., 1998 sourceSupported
• cites Favia et al., 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Developmental success of the molecular forms in different larval habitats depended on predator presence, with M succeeding more than S in both habitats under predator pressure.

“These studies revealed that developmental success of the molecular forms in the different larval habitats was dependent on the presence of predators: The success of the M form was higher than that of the S form in both habitats under predator pressure (Table 2).”

• cites Diabate et al., 2008 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In most theoretical models of sympatric and parapatric speciation, divergent natural selection plays a dominant role.

“In most theoretical models of sympatric and parapatric speciation, divergent natural selection plays a dominant role (Genner et al., 2007; Grant and Grant, 1979; Schluter, 2001; Wu, 2001; Wu and Ting, 2004).”

• cites Genner et al., 2007 sourceCould not verify

  The population-structure discussion (p. 8) concerns gene flow and statistical tests, while the conservation discussion (p. 9) concerns cichlid diversification from refugial populations. Searches for divergent natural selection and theoretical models of sympatric or parapatric speciation found no passage addressing the claim in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.74)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Grant and Grant, 1979 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Schluter, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Larval surveys in areas of sympatry failed to detect differences in habitat use by the molecular forms in Mali and by An. gambiae and An. arabiensis in Kenya.

“Moreover, larval surveys in areas of sympatry failed to detect differences in habitat use by the molecular forms in Mali (Edillo et al., 2002) and by An. gambiae and An. arabiensis in Kenya (Gimnig et al., 2001).”

• cites Edillo et al., 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Gimnig et al., 2001 sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract and Discussion report that An. gambiae and An. arabiensis had broadly similar larval habitats in western Kenya. However, the Results found one difference: habitats containing An. gambiae were more likely to have algae. Thus, the survey did not fail to detect all differences in habitat use. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The higher reproductive output of the M form could be a response to lower overall productivity of more permanent sites.

“This could be a response to the lower overall productivity of more permanent sites (Diabate et al., 2008; Diabate et al., 2005; Diuk-Wasser et al., 2005).”

• cites Diabate et al., 2008 sourcePartly supported

  The Results (‘Overall developmental success’; page unavailable) report that puddles produced more adults than the relatively permanent rice fields, but only in cages without predators. With predators present, the paper found no difference between habitats. It does not test whether higher M-form reproductive output is a response to site productivity. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Diabate et al., 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Diuk-Wasser et al., 2005 sourceCould not verify

  The Discussion (page unavailable) considers competition for larval resources but says the authors lack a reliable way to assess habitat quality. The Results (page unavailable) mention more permanent water sources for An. funestus, not their relative productivity. Searches for M-form reproductive output and permanent-site productivity found no passage addressing the proposed explanation. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Insecticide resistance in Culex pipiens increased susceptibility to predators.

“Insecticide resistance in Culex pipiens increased susceptibility to predators (Berticat et al., 2004).”

• cites Berticat et al., 2004 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

S form larvae developed faster than M form larvae in both permanent and temporary habitats, possibly because temporary habitats carry higher desiccation risk.

“Larvae of the S form developed faster than those of the M form in both permanent and temporary habitats, possibly as a response to the higher risk of desiccation in temporary larval habitats it typically occupies (Diabate et al., 2008).”

• cites Diabate et al., 2008 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Research on phenotypic traits under natural conditions, except for disease transmission and insecticide resistance, has been scanty, limiting interpretation of accumulating genetic information.

“Research on phenotypic traits under natural conditions (except on disease transmission and insecticide resistance) has been scanty, limiting interpretation of the wealth of genetic information that has been accumulating over recent years, e.g., (Ribeiro et al., 2004; Stump et al., 2005; Turner et al., 2005).”

• cites Ribeiro et al., 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Stump et al., 2005 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion (page unavailable) says that genome scans can identify candidate regions even when adaptive traits are unknown, and that functional studies are needed to connect genetic findings to ecological and behavioral characteristics. This supports a gap between genetic information and trait-level interpretation, but it does not establish that research on natural-condition phenotypes has generally been scanty or that disease transmission and insecticide resistance are exceptions. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Turner et al., 2005 sourceSupported
  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

In field experiments, the S form outperformed the M form in the absence of predators, while the M form outperformed the S form when predator pressure increased.

“Field experiments demonstrated that the S form outperforms the M form in the absence of predators whereas the reverse is true if predator pressure increases.”

• cites Diabate et al., 2008 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion (page not provided) reports that, without predators, the S form did better in puddles but the M form did better in rice fields. It also reports higher M-form developmental success in both habitats under predator pressure. The claim omits the habitat qualification on the predator-free result. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Such mutations might be fixed by drift before populations reconnect, or once populations merged, reinforced by selection because of reduced fitness of hybrids.

“Such mutations might be fixed by drift before populations reconnect, or once populations merged, reinforced by selection, because of reduced fitness of hybrids (Coyne and Orr, 1997; Genner et al., 2007; Hatfield and Schulter, 1999; Mallet et al., 1998).”

• cites Coyne and Orr, 1997 sourcePartly supported

  In the opening discussion (p. 295), Coyne and Orr suggest that stronger sexual isolation between sympatric taxa reflects reinforcement: selection for isolation when hybrids are unfit. The cited passage does not support the separate claim that mutations become fixed by drift before populations reconnect; a search for drift found no such account in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Genner et al., 2007 sourcePartly supported

  The population-structure discussion (p. 8) suggests that isolation may have been accompanied by genetic drift and random loss of alleles. It does not say that mutations became fixed before populations reconnected, or that selection reinforced them after merging because hybrids had reduced fitness. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Hatfield and Schulter, 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The frequency of the kdr resistance allele is high in the S form and low in the M form.

“Because the frequency of the kdr resistance allele is high in the S form but low in the M form (Table 1), its possible contribution to the results above should be evaluated.”

May combine two claims.

Both forms contribute similarly to disease transmission, are anthropophilic, bite at night, and rest indoors during the day.

“Because both contribute similarly to disease transmission, both are anthropophilic, biting at night, and indoor resting during the day – they can be targeted by similar means of adult control.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

If new pathogen or vector species differ in traits affecting virulence or vectorial capacity, they could change disease manifestations and transmission patterns.

“New species of pathogens and vectors might change disease manifestations and transmission patterns if they differ in traits affecting pathogen virulence or vectorial capacity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Crossing experiments recognized three freshwater species and three brackish-water species, and later split An. quadriannulatus into two.

“Crossing experiments led to the recognition of three fresh water species: An. gambiae s.s., An. arabiensis, An. quadriannulatus, and three brackish water species: An. bwambae, An. melas and An. merus, and later to the division of An. quadriannulatus into two species (Hunt et al., 1998).”

• cites Hunt et al., 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Spatial swarm segregation produces reproductive isolation between the forms, though within-swarm mate recognition matters in some places.

“Reproductive isolation between the molecular forms is achieved by spatial swarm segregation, although within-swarm mate recognition appears to play a role in certain locations.”

May combine two claims.

Research has extensively examined genetic differentiation between the M and S forms, whereas phenotypic differences, the evolutionary forces behind divergence, and the mechanisms maintaining isolation have only recently received attention.

“Genetic differentiation between the molecular forms has been extensively studied, but phenotypic differences between them, the evolutionary forces that generated divergence, and the mechanisms that maintain their genetic isolation have only recently been addressed.”

• cites Black and Lanzaro, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites della Torre et al., 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Krzywinski and Besansky, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Adult body size, reproductive output, and longevity differ between the forms, indicating adaptation to separate niches.

“Although less pronounced, differences in adult body size, reproductive output, and longevity also suggest that the molecular forms have adapted to distinct niches.”

May combine two claims.

Adult mating behavior divergence includes spatial swarm segregation and within-swarm mate recognition, but these play different roles in Burkina Faso and Mali.

“Divergence in adult mating behavior involves spatial swarm segregation and within-swarm mate recognition but they appear to play different roles in promoting reproductive isolation in Burkina Faso and Mali.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The resemblance between An. gambiae s.s. and An. arabiensis may stem from extensive introgression rather than a closer phylogenetic relationship.

“For example, the similarity between the most important vectors An. gambiae s.s. and An. arabiensis may be a result of extensive introgression rather than closer phylogenetic relationship (Krzywinski and Besansky, 2003).”

• cites Krzywinski and Besansky, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Fixed chromosomal inversions between species in the complex made field identification easier and enabled genetic and ecological discoveries.

“Fixed chromosomal inversions between these species e.g., (Coluzzi and Sabatini, 1967) facilitated simpler identification of field specimens and led to important genetic and ecological discoveries.”

• cites Coluzzi and Sabatini, 1967Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The same differences can also explain the gradient between humid and arid environments, because arid areas depend on permanent habitats.

“These differences explain the sharp discontinuity in distribution of the molecular forms between rice fields and surrounding savanna, but they can also explain the concurrent cline between humid and arid environments due to the dependence on permanent habitats in the latter.”

May combine two claims.

Similarities in larval ecology between East African An. arabiensis and West African M form probably reflect convergent evolution, though introgression cannot be excluded.

“Presumably the similarities in larval ecology of An. arabiensis in East Africa and the M form in West Africa represent convergent evolution although the possibility of introgression cannot be ruled out (Besansky et al., 2003; Besansky et al., 1997; Coluzzi et al., 2002; Donnelly et al., 2004).”

• cites Besansky et al., 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Besansky et al., 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Coluzzi et al., 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The geographical ranges of the M and S molecular forms are rather stable.

May combine two claims.

Laboratory crosses of chromosomal form colonies and crosses of F1s from wild-caught molecular form mothers in Burkina Faso detected no postmating isolation.

“Notably, no postmating isolation was detected by laboratory crosses of colonies representing the chromosomal forms (Di Deco et al., 1980; Persiani, 1986) nor in crosses of F1s from naturally collected mothers representing the molecular forms from Burkina Faso (Diabate et al., 2007).”

• cites Di Deco et al., 1980Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Persiani, 1986Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Diabate et al., 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Phenotypic divergence may affect epidemiology if it alters vectorial capacity, distribution range, or ability to withstand control.

“Notably, phenotypic divergence alone may have epidemiological implications; if it changes vectorial capacity, vector’s distribution range, or its ability to withstand means of control.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Most studies compared M and S populations in savanna, corresponding to Mopti and Savanna; in Mali the S form may include an unknown fraction of Bamako.

“Most studies have compared M and S populations in the savanna, which correspond to the Mopti (M) vs. Savanna (S); although in Mali the S form could contain an unknown fraction of Bamako.”

May combine two claims.

Most studies were done near Mali and Burkina Faso, where chromosomal forms matched molecular forms perfectly.

“Most studies, however, were conducted near Mali and Burkina Faso where the chromosomal forms perfectly corresponded to the molecular forms.”

May combine two claims.

In mixed and single form transplantation cages, S outcompeted M in puddles, while rice field results were inconclusive.

“Comparing developmental success of the molecular forms in mixed and single form transplantation cages showed the S form outcompeted the M form in puddles (inconclusive results were obtained in rice fields).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Divergent selection is central to several speciation models as the cause of differential fitness across environments, which directly or indirectly promotes reproductive isolation.

“Divergent selection is fundamental to several speciation models as the underlying cause of differential fitness of genotypes in different environments which directly or indirectly promotes reproductive isolation (Schluter, 2001).”

• cites Schluter, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Those Angolan Forest mosquitoes belonged only to the M molecular form, suggesting that arid adaptation is not conferred solely by inversions.

“Notably, these Forest mosquitoes were solely of the M molecular form, suggesting that adaptation to arid environment is not only conferred by inversions.”

May combine two claims.

These theoretical and empirical advances largely resolved the controversy, and many medical entomologists now regard the molecular forms as incipient species.

“These theoretical and empirical advances have mostly resolved the controversy and the molecular forms are now perceived as incipient species by many, if not all medical entomologists.”

May combine two claims.

Both molecular forms occur in sympatry in the humid forest belt, complicating the aridity pattern.

“This pattern was complicated, however, by finding both molecular forms in sympatry in the humid forest belt (della Torre et al., 2005; Wondji et al., 2002).”

• cites della Torre et al., 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wondji et al., 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The geographical ranges of the M and S molecular forms are rather stable.

May combine two claims.

An. arabiensis is more zoophilic in East Africa than in West and Central Africa and is absent or rare in West African rice fields where M predominates.

“An. arabiensis exhibits a higher degree of zoophily in East Africa than in West and Central Africa and is conspicuously missing (or rare) from rice fields in West Africa where the M form predominates.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The geographical ranges of the M and S molecular forms are rather stable.

May combine two claims.

In Mali and Burkina Faso, the two differentiated groups matched Mopti versus Savanna and Bamako, which led to the M and S molecular form names.

“In Mali and Burkina Faso, these groups corresponded to the Mopti vs. Savanna and Bamako (Favia et al., 1997; Favia and Louis, 1999), hence the terms M and S molecular forms.”

• cites Favia et al., 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Favia and Louis, 1999Not checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Inversions have been considered the basis for speciation in An. gambiae s.s.

“Inversions have been considered the basis for the speciation in An. gambiae s.s. (Coluzzi et al., 1985; Coluzzi et al., 2002).”

• cites Coluzzi et al., 1985 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Coluzzi et al., 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

More than 90% of the M form range overlaps the S form range, suggesting considerable phenotypic overlap.

“Over 90% of the range of the M form overlaps with that of the S form, suggesting considerable phenotypic overlap between them.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The geographical ranges of the M and S molecular forms are rather stable.

May combine two claims.

Early studies found a latitudinal cline in inversion frequencies with aridity and seasonal fluctuations, supporting a role for selection on inversions.

“Early studies revealed a latitudinal cline in inversion frequencies with aridity combined with corresponding seasonal fluctuations in inversion frequencies (Coluzzi et al., 1985; Toure et al., 1994; Toure et al., 1998), providing solid ground for the role of selection on inversions.”

• cites Coluzzi et al., 1985 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Toure et al., 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Toure et al., 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Apart from the molecular forms, chromosomal forms do not correspond to genetically distinct populations based on current data; they appear to be conspecific populations under different selection pressures with different inversion allele frequencies.

“However, disconnected from the molecular forms, the chromosomal forms do not correspond to genetically distinct populations based on currently available data. Instead, they appear to represent conspecific populations subject to different selection pressures with different frequencies of inversion “alleles”.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

No studies have compared S populations from West and East Africa, so generalizations should be cautious.

“No studies compared S populations from West and East Africa, so generalization should be considered cautiously.”

May combine two claims.

The schematic map shows extensive geographical overlap, boundaries incompatible with known bio-geographical factors, and substantial variation in range size.

“Three important features are apparent from examination of this schematic map: (i) extensive overlap in geographical range, (ii) boundaries incompatible with known bio-geographical factors, and (iii) substantial variation in range’s size.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The geographical ranges of the M and S molecular forms are rather stable.

May combine two claims.

Form composition shifts from one extreme to the other over a few kilometers, indicating strong selection linked to larval habitats.

“The form composition flips from one extreme to the other, along few kilometers, indicating strong selective force related to larval habitats.”

May combine two claims.

Where both forms coexist, M predominates in arid higher-latitude habitats with annual precipitation below 1000 mm and evapotranspiration above 2000 mm, while S predominates in humid lower latitudes with precipitation above 1000 mm and evapotranspiration below 1800 mm.

“Even in areas where both forms coexist, the M form predominates in arid habitats at higher latitudes (annual precipitations <1000 mm and evapotranspiration >2000 mm) whilst the S form predominates in humid lower latitudes (annual precipitations >1000 mm and evapotranspiration <1800 mm) (Bayoh et al., 2001; della Torre et al., 2001; della Torre et al., 2005).”

• cites Bayoh et al., 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites della Torre et al., 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites della Torre et al., 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The geographical ranges of the M and S molecular forms are rather stable.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Phenotypic variation may depend on karyotype, so Forest-M and Mopti populations should differ more than two Forest-M populations.

“Phenotypic variation may depend on the karyotype (see above), thus differences between Forest-M and Mopti populations would be larger than between two Forest-M populations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Because larvae and eggs experience different ecological settings from adults, assessing divergent selection requires examining phenotypic variation at all life stages.

“The larva (and egg) of An. gambiae experiences distinct ecological settings from the adult, and accordingly, such assessment requires examination of phenotypic variation between the molecular forms at all life stages (Table 1).”

May combine two claims.

Inversion frequencies are strongly tied to aridity across space and time, showing selection shapes them and complicating assessment of genetic isolation.

“Inversion frequencies were strongly correlated with aridity on spatial and temporal scales (Coluzzi et al., 1985; Coluzzi et al., 1979; Toure et al., 1994), indicating that selection had a key role in shaping inversion frequencies, hence it confounds assessment of genetic isolation between forms.”

• cites Coluzzi et al., 1985 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Coluzzi et al., 1979 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Toure et al., 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The chromosomal-molecular form correspondence failed in nearby countries; in Central Africa the forest chromosomal form split into sympatric molecular forms with no M/S hybrids.

“This correspondence, however, did not hold for specimens from adjacent countries (della Torre et al., 2001), for example the forest chromosomal form in Central Africa was divided into the sympatric molecular forms and no M/S hybrids were found (Lehmann et al., 2003; Wondji et al., 2002).”

• cites della Torre et al., 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lehmann et al., 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wondji et al., 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In Mali, the S form swarms above bare ground, while the M form swarms above markers with a dark center in a lighter background such as a well.

“In Mali, the S form swarms above bare ground, whereas the M form swarms above markers consisting of a dark center in a lighter background such as a well (Diabate et al. unpublished).”

• cites Diabate et al. unpublishedNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A negative relationship between predator avoidance and competitive ability was found in container mosquitoes Aedes albopictus and Ochlerotatus triseriatus.

“Moreover, a negative relationship between predator avoidance capacity and competitive ability was detected in container mosquitoes Aedes albopoictus and Ochlerotatus triseriatus (Kesavaraju et al., 2007a).”

• cites Kesavaraju et al., 2007aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

A preliminary study detected differences in cuticular hydrocarbons between chromosomal forms, suggesting that olfaction is key to mate recognition.

“A preliminary study of cuticular hydrocarbons detected differences between chromosomal forms (Milligan et al. 1993), suggesting that olfaction is key to mate recognition.”

• cites Milligan et al. 1993 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Divergence in life history traits may accompany speciation and reflect different niche conditions.

“Due to their direct impact on fitness, divergence in life history traits may accompany speciation reflecting the different conditions of the niches occupied by each species (McKinnon et al., 2004).”

• cites McKinnon et al., 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Predation indirectly promotes premating isolation in walking-sticks.

“Predation and competition also mediated divergent selection resulting in adaptive radiation in Timema stick insects (Nosil and Crespi, 2006a; Nosil and Crespi, 2006b) and indirectly, predation promotes premating isolation (Nosil 2004) in walking-sticks.”

• cites Nosil 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Although slower development exposes M larvae to predators longer, M has superior predator avoidance ability, whose nature remains unknown.

“Despite its slower developmental time forcing it to endure larval predators longer, the M form possesses a superior predator avoidance ability, the nature of which remains to be identified.”

May combine two claims.

M form larvae have superior predator avoidance, allowing them to dominate predator-rich larval habitats.

“These studies explain the habitat segregation between rice fields and surrounding savanna based on the superior competitive power of the S form larvae in temporary habitats with low predation pressure, whereas the superior predator avoidance of the M form allows it to dominate in predator-rich larval habitats.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Predation and competition mediated divergent selection resulting in adaptive radiation in Timema stick insects.

“Predation and competition also mediated divergent selection resulting in adaptive radiation in Timema stick insects (Nosil and Crespi, 2006a; Nosil and Crespi, 2006b) and indirectly, predation promotes premating isolation (Nosil 2004) in walking-sticks.”

• cites Nosil and Crespi, 2006aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Nosil and Crespi, 2006bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mosquitoes show various behavioral responses to avoid larval predators.

“Mosquitoes exhibit various behavioural responses to avoid larval predators (Blaustein et al., 2004; Kesavaraju et al., 2007b).”

• cites Blaustein et al., 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Kesavaraju et al., 2007bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Cross mating between the molecular forms is 1.2%, considerably lower than the 17% expected by chance.

“Cross mating (1.2%) was considerably lower than expected by chance (17%).”

• cites Tripet et al. 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The length of hydroperiod in freshwater bodies mediates divergent selection in a number of species.

“These results are consistent with previous studies showing that the length of hydroperiod in freshwater bodies mediates divergent selection in a number of species (Williams, 2006).”

• cites Williams, 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Adaptation to different larval habitats was key to speciation in the An. gambiae complex.

“Coluzzi and others (2002) hypothesized that adaptation to different larval habitats was key to speciation in An. gambiae complex as exemplified by three independent speciation events that resulted in salty-water (brackish) tolerant species: An. melas, An. merus, and An. bwambae.”

• cites Coluzzi and others (2002)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Larval habitats in arid climates tend to be more permanent because rain is too rare to sustain populations.

“Because larval habitats in arid climate tend to be more permanent (as rain is too rare to sustain populations), the capacity of the M form to exploit such larval habitat explains its extended distribution into dryer environment.”

May combine two claims.

Chemical cues such as pheromones and cuticular hydrocarbons do not play a major role in form recognition, unless such signals are only released or perceived during swarming.

“Importantly, cross mating between the molecular forms occurred indoors as much as mating between members of the same form (Dao et al., 2008), indicating that chemical cues such as pheromones and cuticular hydrocarbons do not play a major role in form recognition, unless such signals are only released or perceived during swarming.”

May combine two claims.

In East Africa, mixed swarms between An. gambiae and An. arabiensis were reported, suggesting that mate recognition within swarms is widespread.

“In East Africa, Marchand (1984) reported mixed swarms between An. gambiae and An. arabiensis suggesting that mate recognition within swarms is widespread.”

• cites Marchand (1984) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mutations accumulating in isolated populations may have modified mating behaviour.

“Mutations accumulating in such isolated population may have modified mating behaviour.”

May combine two claims.

Many larval sites remain wet for several weeks and harbor an intermediate predator community.

“Many larval sites remain wet for several weeks and will harbor intermediate predator community (Williams, 2006), possibly allowing more equal success of both forms as suggested by high frequency of larval sites shared by both forms.”

• cites Williams, 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The molecular forms represent a promising opportunity to uncover adaptive variation, although local adaptation presumably exists within each form.

“The molecular forms represent a promising opportunity to uncover adaptive variation, although local adaptation presumably exists within each form.”

May combine two claims.

Increasing divergence with time is most plausible, but because fusion and fission are possible and depend on ecological conditions, divergence may remain the same for long or even decrease.

“Increasing divergence with time is most plausible, but since fusion and fission are possible and depend on ecological conditions, divergence may remain the same for long or even decrease.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The spread of agriculture led to the speciation of An. gambiae s.s. approximately 5000 years ago from a zoophilic ancestor, so the molecular forms must have split later.

“Coluzzi and others (2002) hypothesized that the spread of agriculture led to the speciation of An. gambiae s.s. approximately 5000 yrs ago from a zoophilic ancestor, so the molecular forms must have split even later.”

• cites Coluzzi and others (2002)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

These diverse vectors together increase the burden of malaria and lymphatic filariasis because they extend the duration of disease transmission and its geographical range.

“These diverse vectors together increase the burden of malaria and lymphatic filariasis because they extend duration of disease transmission and its geographical range (Table 1 and Figure 1).”

May combine two claims.

Positive selection was demonstrated by latitudinal and temporal clines in inversion frequencies and by patterns of polymorphism and differentiation between the molecular forms at a locus on chromosome II.

“Positive selection was demonstrated by latitudinal and temporal clines in inversion frequencies (above) and from patterns of polymorphism and differentiation between the molecular forms operating on a “locus” on chromosome II (Turner and Hahn, 2007).”

• cites Turner and Hahn, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Without reinforcement and with gene flow, these mechanisms may be selected against quickly within form or spread rapidly within form due to their advantage in preventing cross mating between forms.

“However, without reinforcement and in the face of gene flow, these mechanisms may be selected against rather quickly within form (between genotypes with adaptations to the same habitat) or spread rapidly within form due to their advantage in preventing cross mating between forms.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A third speciation island on chromosome 2R separates the molecular forms from Cameroon but not from Mali.

“It is also compatible with finding a third speciation island (on chromosome 2R) separating the molecular forms from Cameroon but not from Mali (Turner et al. 2007).”

• cites Turner et al. 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The larval surveys did not quantify the success of the forms in different habitats and did not estimate form and species relative abundance.

“However, such surveys did not quantify the success of the forms in different habitats and did not estimate form and species relative abundance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Ecological speciation against hybrids has been shown in threespine sticklebacks and the butterfly Heliconius erato.

“Ecological speciation against hybrids has been shown in a few divergent species such as threespine sticklebacks and butterfly Heliconius erato (Hatfield and Schluter, 1999, Mallet et al. 1998).”

• cites Hatfield and Schluter, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Mallet et al. 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Larval control methods might have greater success in the fewer, larger, and predictable sites of the M form, but no such strategies are widely implemented.

“Larval control methods might have a greater success in the fewer, larger, and predictable sites of the M form, but no such strategies are widely implemented.”

May combine two claims.

The compartmentalized vectorial system is far more robust because of its higher capacity to adapt, due to high total effective population size and subdivision coupled with introgression, leading to the spread of adaptive genes between compartments.

“Indirectly, this compartmentalized vectorial system is far more robust given its higher capacity to adapt because of the high total effective population size and subdivision coupled with introgression (Mallet, 2005), leading to the spread of adaptive genes between “compartments”.”

• cites Mallet, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In both stickleback and Heliconius cases, hybrids were viable in the laboratory but showed lower fitness in natural conditions.

“In both cases, hybrids were viable in the laboratory, but showed lower fitness in natural conditions.”

• cites Hatfield and Schluter, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Mallet et al. 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

An. arabiensis in East Africa occupies a niche similar to that filled by the M form in West Africa, suggesting the same process operated in both cases and resulted in convergent evolution.

“That An. arabiensis in East Africa occupies (what appears to be) the “exact” niche filled by the M form in West Africa, suggests the same process operated in both cases, resulting in convergent evolution.”

May combine two claims.

Future prospects for disease control are reduced because of the forms' different susceptibility to insecticides and because reproductive isolation will limit the effectiveness of control strategies based on sterile male release or genetically engineered constructs, unless the populations are targeted simultaneously.

“Future prospects for disease control is reduced not only because of the forms different susceptibility to insecticides but also because reproductive isolation will limit effectiveness of control strategies based on sterile male release or the spread of genetically engineered constructs reducing transmission (Benedict and Robinson, 2003), unless these populations are targeted simultaneously.”

• cites Benedict and Robinson, 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The behavioral, physiological, and morphological adaptations that allow populations of An. gambiae to occupy diverse environments across Africa are mostly unknown.

“The behavioral, physiological, and morphological adaptations that allow populations of An. gambiae to occupy diverse environments across Africa are mostly unknown.”

May combine two claims.

Variation in hydroperiod of natural larval sites existed regardless of humans, so its role in divergence does not support the agriculture-speciation hypothesis.

“Finally, variation in hydroperiod of natural larval sites existed regardless of man, hence its role in divergence does not support this hypothesis.”

May combine two claims.

Isolation of diverging populations occurred repeatedly, and independent mechanisms facilitating assortative mating have evolved and are possibly spreading.

“Accordingly, isolation of diverging populations as described above occurred repeatedly and independent mechanisms facilitating assortative mating have evolved and are possibly spreading.”