Transcranial direct current stimulation: A computer-based human model study
Abstract
Objectives Interest in transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in clinical practice has been growing, however, the knowledge about its efficacy and mechanisms of action remains limited. This paper presents a realistic magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-derived finite element model of currents applied to the human brain during tDCS.Experimental design Current density distributions were analyzed in a healthy human head model with varied electrode montages. For each configuration, we calculated the cortical current density distributions. Analogous studies were completed for three pathological models of cortical infarcts.Principal observations The current density magnitude maxima injected in the cortex by 1 mA tDCS ranged from 0.77 to 2.00 mA/cm(2). The pathological models revealed that cortical strokes, relative to the non-pathological solutions, can elevate current density maxima and alter their location.Conclusions These results may guide optimized tDCS for application in normal subjects and patients with focal brain lesions.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Evidence from animal models suggests that the neuromodulatory effects of TMS are maximal on the directly targeted region.
“Evidence from animal models (26, 27) suggests that the neuromodulatory effects of TMS are maximal on the directly targeted region (11).”
From Disruption of the right temporoparietal junction with transcranial magnetic stimulation reduces the role of beliefs in moral judgments (2010) · cites this paper as [27]
Cites
Nitsche, M. A., & Paulus, W. (2000) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7793.2000.t01-1-00633.x · Cited by 5,656 · see citing works
Sustained excitability elevations induced by transcranial DC motor cortex stimulation in humans
Nitsche, M. A., & Paulus, W. (2001) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.57.10.1899 · Cited by 2,617 · see citing works
Compilation of the Dielectric Properties of Body Tissues at RF and Microwave Frequencies.
Gabriel, C. (1996) · doi:10.21236/ada303903 · Cited by 2,108 · see citing works
Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation of prefrontal cortex enhances working memory
Fregni, F., Boggio, P. S., Nitsche, M., Bermpohl, F., Antal, A., Feredoes, E., Marcolin, M. A., Rigonatti, S. P., Silva, M. T. A., Paulus, W., et al. (2005) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-005-2334-6 · Cited by 1,159 · see citing works
Self-citationEffects of non-invasive cortical stimulation on skilled motor function in chronic stroke
Hummel, F. C. (2005) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awh369 · Cited by 1,112 · see citing works
Bindman, L. J., Lippold, O. C. J., & Redfearn, J. W. T. (1964) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1964.sp007425 · Cited by 969 · see citing works
INTRACELLULAR ACTIVITIES AND EVOKED POTENTIAL CHANGES DURING POLARIZATION OF MOTOR CORTEX.
Purpura, D., & McMurtry, J. G. (1965) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1965.28.1.166 · Cited by 875 · see citing works
Modeling the current distribution during transcranial direct current stimulation
Miranda, P. C., Lomarev, M. P., & Hallett, M. (2006) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2006.04.009 · Cited by 762 · see citing works
Safety criteria for transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in humans
Nitsche, M. A., Liebetanz, D., Lang, N., Antal, A., Tergau, F., & Paulus, W. (2003) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/s1388-2457(03)00235-9 · Cited by 697 · see citing works
Safety and cognitive effect of frontal DC brain polarization in healthy individuals
Iyer, M. B., Mattu, U., Grafman, J. H., Lomarev, M. P., Sato, S., & Wassermann, E. M. (2005) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000152986.07469.e9 · Cited by 688 · see citing works
Mechanisms Underlying Recovery of Motor Function After Stroke
Ward, N., & Cohen, L. G. (2004) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.61.12.1844 · Cited by 667 · see citing works
Transcranial direct current stimulation of the unaffected hemisphere in stroke patients
Fregni, F., Boggio, P. S., Mansur, C. G., Wagner, T., Ferreira, M. J. L., Lima, M. C., Rigonatti, S. P., Marcolin, M. A., Freedman, S. D., Nitsche, M. A., et al. (2005) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/01.wnr.0000177010.44602.5e · Cited by 600 · see citing works
Self-citationTranscranial Magnetic Stimulation in the Treatment of Depression
Gershon, A. A., Dannon, P. N., & Grunhaus, L. J. (2003) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.5.835 · Cited by 530 · see citing works
Priori, A. (2003) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/s1388-2457(02)00437-6 · Cited by 507 · see citing works
Treatment of major depression with transcranial direct current stimulation
Fregni, F., Boggio, P. S., Nitsche, M. A., Marcolin, M. A., Rigonatti, S. P., & Pascual‐Leone, Á. (2006) · Bipolar Disorders · doi:10.1111/j.1399-5618.2006.00291.x · Cited by 495 · see citing works
Self-citationElectrical stimulation of neural tissue to evoke behavioral responses
Tehovnik, E. J. (1996) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/0165-0270(95)00131-x · Cited by 478 · see citing works
Antal, A., Kincses, Z. T., Nitsche, M. A., Bártfai, O., & Paulus, W. (2004) · Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.03-0688 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
Three-Dimensional Head Model Simulation of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
Wagner, T., Zahn, M., Grodzinsky, A. J., & Pascual‐Leone, Á. (2004) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.2004.827925 · Cited by 349 · see citing works
Self-citationDielectric Properties of Tissues
(2008) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1081/e-ebbe2-120041843 · Cited by 319 · see citing works
A Controlled Clinical Trial of Cathodal DC Polarization in Patients with Refractory Epilepsy
Fregni, F., Thomé-Souza, S., Nitsche, M. A., Freedman, S. D., Valente, K. D. R., & Pascual‐Leone, Á. (2006) · Epilepsia · doi:10.1111/j.1528-1167.2006.00426.x · Cited by 295 · see citing works
Self-citationNathan, S. S., Sinha, S. R., Gordon, B., Lesser, R. P., & Thakor, N. V. (1993) · Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/0013-4694(93)90006-h · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Specific impedance of rabbit cerebral cortex
Ranck, J. B. (1963) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/s0014-4886(63)80005-9 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
Conductivities of Three-Layer Live Human Skull
Akhtari, M., Bryant, H., Mamelak, A., Flynn, E., Heller, L., Shih, J. J., Mandelkem, M., Matlachov, A., Ranken, D., Best, E., et al. (2004) · Brain Topography · doi:10.1023/a:1014590923185 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
MEASUREMENT OF IMPOSED VOLTAGE GRADIENT ADEQUATE TO MODULATE NEURONAL FIRING
Terzuolo, C. A., & Bullock, T. H. (1956) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.42.9.687 · Cited by 253 · see citing works
Miranda, P. C., Hallett, M., & Basser, P. (2003) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.2003.816079 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Couturier, J. L. (2005) · Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience · doi:10.1139/jpn.0514 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
A Meta-analysis of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in the Treatment of Depression
Holtzheimer, P. E., Russo, J. E., Russo, J. E., PhD, Avery, A. D. H., & O’Reardon, J. P. (2025) · Psychopharmacology Bulletin · doi:10.64719/pb.4246 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Catecholaminergic Consolidation of Motor Cortical Neuroplasticity in Humans
Nitsche, M. A. (2004) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhh085 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
MRI study of human brain exposed to weak direct current stimulation of the frontal cortex
Nitsche, M. A., Niehaus, L., Hoffmann, K., Hengst, S., Liebetanz, D., Paulus, W., & Meyer, B.-U. (2004) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2004.05.001 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Some relations between resistivity and electrical activity in the cerebral cortex of the cat
W. H., F. J., & Landau, W. M. (1955) · Journal of Cellular and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1002/jcp.1030450305 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Modulation of moving phosphene thresholds by transcranial direct current stimulation of V1 in human
Antal, A., Kincses, Z. T., Nitsche, M. A., & Paulus, W. (2003) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(03)00181-7 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Transcranial magnetic stimulation and stroke: A computer-based human model study
Wagner, T., Fregni, F., Eden, U. T., Ramos-Estébanez, C., Grodzinsky, A. J., Zahn, M., & Pascual‐Leone, Á. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.04.046 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Self-citationMeasurements of the specific Resistance of the human Body to direct Current
Bürger, H., & Milaan, J. B. V. (1943) · Acta Medica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.0954-6820.1943.tb11253.x · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Chapter 75 Outlasting excitability shifts induced by direct current stimulation of the human brain
Paulus, W. (2004) · Supplements to Clinical neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/s1567-424x(09)70411-8 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
THE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF ANIMAL TISSUES UNDER NORMAL AND PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
Crile, G. W., Hosmer, H. R., & Rowland, A. F. (1922) · American Journal of Physiology-Legacy Content · doi:10.1152/ajplegacy.1922.60.1.59 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Modulation kortikaler Erregbarkeit beim Menschen durch transkranielle Gleichstromstimulation
Nitsche, M. A., Liebetanz, D., Tergau, F., & Paulus, W. (2002) · Der Nervenarzt · doi:10.1007/s00115-002-1272-9 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Jacobs, M. A., Zhang, Z. G., Knight, R. A., Hamid Soltanian-zadeh, A., Goussev, A. V., Peck, D. J., & Chopp, M. (2001) · Stroke · doi:10.1161/01.str.32.4.943 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
A theoretical comparison of electric and magnetic stimulation of the brain
Saypol, J. M., Roth, B. J., Cohen, L. G., & Hallett, M. (1991) · Annals of Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1007/bf02584306 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Hausmann, A., Pascual‐Leone, Á., Kemmler, G., Rupp, C. I., Lechner‐Schoner, T., Kramer-Reinstadler, K., Walpoth, M., Mechtcheriakov, S., Conca, A., & Weiss, E. M. (2004) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.v65n0608 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Optimal stimulus duration for extracranial cortical stimulation
Geddes, L. A. (1987) · Neurosurgery · doi:10.1097/00006123-198701000-00023 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Brain polarization: behavioral and therapeutic effects.
Stepke, F. L. (1977) · PubMed · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Landau, W. M., Bishop, G. H., & Clare, M. H. (1964) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1964.27.5.788 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields
Foster, K. R. (1999) · Wiley Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering · doi:10.1002/047134608x.w1426 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields
Chen, K., & Lin, J. C. (1995) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-550710-3.50035-x · Cited by 48 · see citing works
A Controlled Study of Polarization in Depression
Arfai, E., Théano, G., Montagu, J. D., & Robin, A. A. (1970) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.116.533.433 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
MRI tissue characterization of experimental cerebral ischemia in rat
Soltanian‐Zadeh, H., Pasnoor, M., Hammoud, R. W., et al. (2003) · Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging · doi:10.1002/jmri.10256 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Site of initial excitation and current threshold as a function of electrode radius in heart muscle
Lindemans, F. W., Heethaar, R. M., van der Gon, J. J. D., et al. (1975) · Cardiovascular Research · doi:10.1093/cvr/9.1.95 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Transcranial direct current stimulation: a new treatment for depression?
Nitsche, M. (2002) · Bipolar Disorders · doi:10.1034/j.1399-5618.4.s1.43.x · Cited by 32 · see citing works
The Effects of Polarization on Normal Subjects
Sheffield, L., & Mowbray, R. M. (1968) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.114.507.225 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Mercato, G. D., & García-Sánchez, F. J. (1992) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/10.135546 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Kim, Y. M., Webster, J. G., & Tompkins, W. J. (1984) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.1984.325391 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Essai théorique et expérimental sur le galvanisme
Aldini, G. (1968) · Readex Microprint eBooks · Cited by 18 · see citing works
The Effects of Low Level DC Scalp Positive and Negative Current on the Performance of Various Tasks
Hall, K. M., Hicks, R. A., & Hopkins, H. K. (1970) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.117.541.689 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Ueno, S. (1994) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-9507-3 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Magnetic Nerve Stimulation: Principles, Advantages and Disadvantages
Barker, A. T. (1994) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-9507-3_2 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Transcranial direct current stimulation: State of the art 2008
Nitsche, M. A., Cohen, L. G., Wassermann, E. M., Priori, A., Lang, N., Antal, A., Paulus, W., Hummel, F., Boggio, P. S., Fregni, F., et al. (2008) · Brain Stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2008.06.004 · Cited by 3,057 · see citing works
“However, the effects of small electrodes could differ qualitatively due to: (a) differential shunting of current in the scalp; (b) greater edgeeffect relative to the overall electrode area (antagonistically oriented electric fields in the immediate vicinity of the electrodes(28)); and other factors.(23) For the motor…”
BackgroundSelf-citationFritsch, B., Reis, J., Martinowich, K., Schambra, H. M., Ji, Y., Cohen, L. G., & Lu, B. (2010) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2010.03.035 · Cited by 1,420 · see citing works
Brunoni, A. R., Nitsche, M. A., Bolognini, N., Bikson, M., Wagner, T., Merabet, L., Edwards, D. J., Valero-Cabre, A., Rotenberg, A., Pascual-Leone, A., et al. (2012) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2011.03.002 · Cited by 1,445 · see citing works
Self-citationYoung, L., Camprodon, J. A., Hauser, M., Pascual-Leone, A., & Saxe, R. (2010) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0914826107 · Cited by 584 · see citing works
Self-citationNoninvasive Brain-Computer Interfaces Based on Sensorimotor Rhythms
He, B., Baxter, B., Edelman, B. J., Cline, C. C., & Ye, W. W. (2015) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/jproc.2015.2407272 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Boggio, P. S., Zaghi, S., Villani, A. B., Fecteau, S., Pascual-Leone, A., & Fregni, F. (2010) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.06.019 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Self-citationTruong, D. Q., Magerowski, G., Blackburn, G. L., Bikson, M., & Alonso-Alonso, M. (2013) · NeuroImage: Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2013.05.011 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Noninvasive brain stimulation in traumatic brain injury
Demirtas-Tatlidede, A., Vahabzadeh-Hagh, A. M., Bernabeu, M., Tormos, J. M., & Pascual-Leone, A. (2012) · Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation · doi:10.1097/htr.0b013e318217df55 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Salehinejad, M. A., Nejati, V., Mosayebi-Samani, M., Mohammadi, A., Wischnewski, M., Kuo, M.-F., Avenanti, A., Vicario, C. M., & Nitsche, M. A. (2020) · Neuroscience Bulletin · doi:10.1007/s12264-020-00501-x · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Suh, H. S., Lee, W. H., & Kim, T.-S. (2012) · Physics in Medicine and Biology · doi:10.1088/0031-9155/57/21/6961 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Indahlastari, A., Hardcastle, C., Albizu, A., Alvarez-Alvarado, S., Boutzoukas, E. M., Evangelista, N. D., Hausman, H. K., Kraft, J., Langer, K., & Woods, A. J. (2021) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s259499 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
White matter hyperintensities affect transcranial electrical stimulation in the aging brain
Indahlastari, A., Albizu, A., Boutzoukas, E. M., O’Shea, A., & Woods, A. J. (2021) · Brain Stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2020.11.009 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
- Authors
- Wagner, T., Fregni, F., Fecteau, S., Grodzinsky, A., Zahn, M., & Pascual-Leone, A.
- Affiliations
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (US)
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Wagner, Tim
- Venue
- NeuroImage
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2007-04
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 1113-1124
- ISSN
- 1053-8119 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2171800174
- Cited by
- 567
- References
- 56
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 34 · 2019: 42 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 42 · 2014: 37 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 38
- FWCI
- 12.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- NeuroImage (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Studies
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Ultrasound and Hyperthermia Applications
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neural Engineering
- Keywords
- transcranial direct current stimulation, finite element model, current density distribution, electrode montage, cortical infarction, stroke, non-invasive brain stimulation, focal brain lesions
- MeSH terms
- Brain, Computer Simulation, Electromagnetic Fields, Head, Humans, Models, Neurological, Radiation Dosage, Radiometry, Scattering, Radiation, Finite Element Analysis, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
