The abuse potential of medical psilocybin according to the 8 factors of the Controlled Substances Act
Open accessAbstract
This review assesses the abuse potential of medically-administered psilocybin, following the structure of the 8 factors of the US Controlled Substances Act (CSA). Research suggests the potential safety and efficacy of psilocybin in treating cancer-related psychiatric distress and substance use disorders, setting the occasion for this review. A more extensive assessment of abuse potential according to an 8-factor analysis would eventually be required to guide appropriate schedule placement. Psilocybin, like other 5-HT2A agonist classic psychedelics, has limited reinforcing effects, supporting marginal, transient non-human self-administration. Nonetheless, mushrooms with variable psilocybin content are used illicitly, with a few lifetime use occasions being normative among users. Potential harms include dangerous behavior in unprepared, unsupervised users, and exacerbation of mental illness in those with or predisposed to psychotic disorders. However, scope of use and associated harms are low compared to prototypical abused drugs, and the medical model addresses these concerns with dose control, patient screening, preparation and follow-up, and session supervision in a medical facility. CONCLUSIONS: (1) psilocybin has an abuse potential appropriate for CSA scheduling if approved as medicine; (2) psilocybin can provide therapeutic benefits that may support the development of an approvable New Drug Application (NDA) but further studies are required which this review describes; (3) adverse effects of medical psilocybin are manageable when administered according to risk management approaches; and (4) although further study is required, this review suggests that placement in Schedule IV may be appropriate if a psilocybin-containing medicine is approved. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Psychedelics: New Doors, Altered Perceptions'.
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Serotonergic psychedelics are not associated with addiction.
“are not associated with addiction [9, 11, 12]”
Despite psilocybin being classified as a drug of abuse, the US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) does not include it among the drugs that can cause dependence and/or addiction.
“Hence, despite psilocybin being classified as a drug of abuse, the US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) does not include it among the drugs that can cause dependence and/or addiction. 45”
From The revival of psilocybin between scientific excitement, evidence of efficacy, and real-world challenges (2024) · cites this paper as [45]
Psilocybin is a serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonist with very low abuse potential.
“Psilocybin is a serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonist with very low abuse potential (11)”
From Psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy for methamphetamine dependence: a case report involving daily methamphetamine use (2024) · cites this paper as [11]
PAT appears to be safe and potentially efficacious for substance use disorders, based on early trials for nicotine and alcohol use disorders.
“Psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy (PAT) also appears to be safe and potentially efficacious for substance use disorders, based on early trials for nicotine and alcohol use disorders [14,15], with little evidence of harmful use in the community [16].”
From Psilocybin‐assisted psychotherapy for methamphetamine use disorder: A pilot open‐label safety and feasibility study. (2025) · cites this paper as [16]
A single dose of either LSD or psilocybin in a controlled clinical setting can considerably improve quality of life of patients with relatively few side effects and a low prevalence of abuse.
“the use of a single dose of either LSD or psilocybin in a controlled clinical setting can considerably improve the quality of life of patients in parallel with relatively few side effects and a low prevalence of abuse”
From Novel pharmacological targets in drug development for the treatment of anxiety and anxiety-related disorders (2019) · cites this paper as Johnson, Griffiths, Hendricks, & Henningfield, 2018
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Grinspoon, L., & Bakalar, J. B. (1979) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Ranking the Harm of Alcohol, Tobacco and Illicit Drugs for the Individual and the Population
van Amsterdam, J., Opperhuizen, A., Koeter, M., & van den Brink, W. (2010) · European Addiction Research · doi:10.1159/000317249 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
Principles of initial experimental drug abuse liability assessment in humans
Griffiths, R. R., Bigelow, G. E., & Ator, N. A. (2003) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/s0376-8716(03)00098-x · Cited by 190 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The methods developed have continued to be refined over the past half century and remain the foundation for human abuse potential assessment studies (Carter and Griffiths, 2009; Griffiths et al., 2003; U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2017a).”
Self-citationPsychedelics: Where we are now, why we got here, what we must do
Belouin, S. J., & Henningfield, J. E. (2018) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.02.018 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Self-citationPsychedelic medicine: a re-emerging therapeutic paradigm
Tupper, K. W., Wood, E., Yensen, R., & Johnson, M. W. (2015) · Canadian Medical Association Journal · doi:10.1503/cmaj.141124 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Self-citationHaertzen, C. A., Hill, H. E., & Belleville, R. E. (1963) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/bf02584088 · Cited by 172 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Studies of LSD and psilocybin contributed to the development of this questionnaire and a broader understanding of abuse (Haertzen and Hickey,1987; Haertzen et al., 1963; Hill et al., 1963).”
Terry, C. E., & Pellens, M. (1928) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Hill, H. E., Haertzen, C. A., Wolbach, A. B., & Miner, E. J. (1963) · Psychopharmacologia · doi:10.1007/bf02584089 · Cited by 159 · cited 2× · see citing works
“frequently self-administer the substance; it was often referred to as the “dysphoria” scale (Hill et al., 1963; Jasinski et al., 1984).”
Garcia‐Romeu, A., Davis, A. K., Erowid, E., Erowid, F., Griffiths, R. R., & Johnson, M. W. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00955 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Self-citationStrassman, R. J. (2000) · UNM’s Digital Repository (University of New Mexico) · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Historical and cultural aspects of man's relationship with addictive drugs
Crocq, M. (2007) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.31887/dcns.2007.9.4/macrocq · Cited by 152 · cited 1× · see citing works
“By way of contrast, alcohol, cocaine, opioids, and tobacco also have histories of use dating thousands of years, but these substances were recognized as addicting and harmful to the lives of many users for centuries (Corti, 1931; Crocq, 2007; Lewin, 1998; Rush, 1808; Terry and Pellens, 1970).”
5-HT receptors and reward-related behaviour: A review
Hayes, D. J., & Greenshaw, A. J. (2011) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.03.005 · Cited by 146 · cited 1× · see citing works
“neu suggest a need for additional studies to better understand the mechanisms of action of psilocybin and other psychedelic substances and how these may contribute to their apparent low overall abuse potential (Baker, 2017; Hayes and Greenshaw, 2011).”
Psilocybin links binocular rivalry switch rate to attention and subjective arousal levels in humans
Carter, O. L., Hasler, F., Pettigrew, J. D., Wallis, G. M., Liu, G. B., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2007) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-007-0930-9 · Cited by 146 · cited 1× · see citing works
“neu reductions in arousal/vigilance (Carter et al., 2007), and attentional impairment (Carter et al.”
Kohn, B., & Hofmann, A. (1981) · The Antioch Review · doi:10.2307/4638477 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Gouzoulis‐Mayfrank, E., Thelen, B., Habermeyer, E., Kunert, H. J., Kovar, K. ‐., Lindenblatt, H., Hermle, L., Spitzer, M., & Sass, H. (1999) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s002130050860 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Henningfield, J. E., Fant, R. V., & Wang, D. W. (2017) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-017-4813-4 · Cited by 141 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Thus, if an NDA for a psilocybin product is submitted to the FDA and approved, then the CSA would require its rescheduling, and schedule placement would be determined by evaluation of its overall abuse potential (Drug Enforcement Administration, 2017a; Henningfield et al., 2017; U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2017…”
Self-citationThe Psychedelic Explorer's Guide: Safe, Therapeutic, and Sacred Journeys
Fadiman, J. (2011) · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Comparison of the reactions induced by psilocybin and LSD-25 in man
Isbell, H. (1959) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/bf00408109 · Cited by 140 · cited 4× · see citing works
“Its binding to and agonist effects at 5-HT2A serotonin receptors are associated with dilation of the pupils (mydriasis), reduced threshold for knee reflex, and commonly increased heartrate and blood pressure, and feelings of nausea (Isbell, 1959a; b).”
InfluentialCross tolerance between LSD and psilocybin
Isbell, H., Wolbach, A. B., Wikler, A., & Miner, E. J. (1961) · Psychopharmacologia · doi:10.1007/bf00407974 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
The Use of LSD in Psychotherapy and Alcoholism
Blaine, G. B. (1968) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00006842-196807000-00014 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Psilocybin dose-dependently causes delayed, transient headaches in healthy volunteers
Johnson, M. W., Sewell, R. A., & Griffiths, R. R. (2011) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.10.029 · Cited by 127 · cited 1× · see citing works
“In addition, it is possible that the often undesirable effects of high doses of psilocybin (Griffiths et al., 2011; Johnson et al., 2012), combined with large variability in the psilocybin-content of mushrooms (Bigwood and Beug, 1982) may lead many users to be cautious about dosing.”
Self-citationBelleville, R. E., Fraser, H. F., Isbell, H., LOGAN, C. R., & Wikler, A. (1956) · PubMed · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Opioids: Similarity between evaluations of subjective effects and animal self‐administration results
Griffiths, R. R., & Balster, R. L. (1979) · Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1002/cpt1979255part1611 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Self-citationComparison of psilocin with psilocybin, mescaline and LSD-25
Wolbach, A. B., Miner, E. J., & Isbell, H. (1962) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/bf00412109 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Dennis, R. W. G., Wasson, V. P., & Wasson, R. G. (1957) · Kew Bulletin · doi:10.2307/4113701 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Increased activation of indirect semantic associations under psilocybin
Spitzer, M., Thimm, M., Hermle, L., Holzmann-Erens, P., Kovar, K., Heimann, H., Gouzoulis‐Mayfrank, E., Kischka, U., & Schneider, F. W. (1996) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0006-3223(95)00418-1 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Studies on Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD-25)
Isbell, H. (1956) · A M A Archives of Neurology & Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archneurpsyc.1956.02330290012002 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Testing for abuse liability of drugs in humans
Fischman, M. W., & Mello, N. K. (1989) · Cited by 111 · see citing works
HIRSHFELD-FLORES, A. (2002) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.8.1448 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Gable, R. S. (1993) · The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse · doi:10.3109/00952999309001618 · Cited by 108 · cited 3× · see citing works
“For example, in a comparative overview of the dependence potential and acute toxicity of psychoactive substances, Gable concluded that psilocybin carried a lower risk of dependence than caffeine and among the lowest risks of death of all major substance abuse categories including cannabis (Gable, 1993).”
Psilocybin, psychological distress, and suicidality
Hendricks, P. S., Johnson, M. W., & Griffiths, R. R. (2015) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881115598338 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Self-citationIndoleamine Hallucinogens in Cluster Headache: Results of the Clusterbusters Medication Use Survey
Schindler, E. A. D., Gottschalk, C. H., Weil, M. J., Shapiro, R. E., Wright, D. A., & Sewell, R. A. (2015) · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs · doi:10.1080/02791072.2015.1107664 · Cited by 103 · cited 1× · see citing works
“, 2015), obsessive-compulsive disorder (Schindler et al., 2015), and cluster headaches (Matsushima et al.”
Fantegrossi, W. E., Woods, J. H., & Winger, G. (2004) · Behavioural Pharmacology · doi:10.1097/00008877-200403000-00007 · Cited by 101 · cited 2× · see citing works
“For example, Fantegrossi, Woods and Winger (Fantegrossi et al., 2004) evaluated the classic psychedelic compounds N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), mescaline, and psilocybin in rhesus monkeys with histories of selfadministering 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), a compound which is not a classic psychedelic but whi…”
Psilocybin for treating substance use disorders?
de Veen, B. T. H., Schellekens, A., Verheij, M. M. M., & Homberg, J. R. (2016) · Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/14737175.2016.1220834 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
A Prehistoric Mural in Spain Depicting Neurotropic Psilocybe Mushrooms?1
Akers, B. P., López, J. F. R., Piper, A., & Ruck, C. A. P. (2011) · Economic Botany · doi:10.1007/s12231-011-9152-5 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Carter, L. P., Richards, B. D., Mintzer, M. Z., & Griffiths, R. R. (2006) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301146 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Self-citationTolerance and cross-tolerance among psychotomimetic drugs
Appel, J. B., & Freedman, D. X. (1968) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/bf00401404 · Cited by 96 · cited 2× · see citing works
“No apparent physiological dependence as evidenced by withdrawal symptoms has been documented in humans (clinical observations) or animals (laboratory studies), although tolerance has been observed (Abramson et al., 1960; Appel and Freedman, 1968; Isbell et al., 1961).”
An analysis of some discriminative properties of d-amphetamine
Kuhn, D. M., Appel, J. B., & Greenberg, I. (1974) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/bf00421458 · Cited by 94 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Similarly, another study found the psilocybin failed to substitute for amphetamine in rats trained to discriminate amphetamine from saline (Kuhn et al., 1974).”
Hendricks, P. S., Crawford, M. S., Cropsey, K. L., Copes, H., Sweat, N. W., Walsh, Z., & Pavela, G. (2017) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881117735685 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Self-citationHendricks, P. S., Clark, C. B., Johnson, M. W., Fontaine, K. R., & Cropsey, K. L. (2014) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881113513851 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Self-citationAbuse liability assessment in human subjects
Jasinski, D. R., Johnson, R. E., & Henningfield, J. E. (1984) · Trends in Pharmacological Sciences · doi:10.1016/0165-6147(84)90415-2 · Cited by 87 · cited 4× · see citing works
“LSD and psilocybin most reliably elevated scores on the LSD scale, but frequently also, at a certain dose and in some individuals, elevated scores on theMBG scale, but generally at a lesser magnitude than opioids and stimulants (Haertzen and Hickey, 1987; Jasinski and Henningfield, 1989; Jasinski et al., 1984).”
InfluentialSelf-citationIsbell, H., & Jasinski, D. R. (1969) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/bf00403684 · Cited by 87 · cited 2× · see citing works
“, 1961), but not to tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) indicating different mechanisms of action (Isbell and Jasinski, 1969).”
Addiction Research Center Inventory (ARCI): Measurement of Euphoria and Other Drug Effects
Haertzen, C. A., & Hickey, J. E. (1987) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-4812-5_24 · Cited by 86 · cited 1× · see citing works
“LSD and psilocybin most reliably elevated scores on the LSD scale, but frequently also, at a certain dose and in some individuals, elevated scores on theMBG scale, but generally at a lesser magnitude than opioids and stimulants (Haertzen and Hickey, 1987; Jasinski and Henningfield, 1989; Jasinski et al., 1984).”
The association of psychedelic use and opioid use disorders among illicit users in the United States
Pisano, V. D., Putnam, N. P., Kramer, H. M., Franciotti, K., Halpern, J. H., & Holden, S. C. (2017) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881117691453 · Cited by 86 · cited 1× · see citing works
“60) among over 44,000 illicit opioid users who completed the NSDUH in years 2008 through 2013 (Pisano et al., 2017).”
Cunningham, K. A., & Appel, J. B. (1987) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/bf00690929 · Cited by 85 · cited 1× · see citing works
“metabolite of psilocybin) and to LSD but not to mescaline, which is considered a classic psychedelic of the phenethylamine-based structural class rather than the tryptamine-based structural class of which psilocybin is a member (Cunningham and Appel, 1987; Koerner and Appel, 1982).”
Harms associated with psychoactive substances: findings of the UK National Drug Survey
Morgan, C. J. A., Muetzelfeldt, L., Muetzelfeldt, M., Nutt, D., & Curran, H. V. (2009) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881109106915 · Cited by 80 · cited 2× · see citing works
“A large survey of 1501 UK drug users (Morgan et al., 2010) assessed ratings of harms for the drugs previously examined by the UK drug experts in Nutt et al.”
ON THE NATURE OF ADDICTION AND HABITUATION*
Wikler, A. (1961) · British Journal of Addiction to Alcohol & Other Drugs · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1961.tb05318.x · Cited by 79 · cited 2× · see citing works
“At the same time theories of addiction and addiction liability assessment were evolving from the focus on physical dependence and withdrawal that had dominated the prior few decades of opioidfocused studies to a greater focus on the acute subjective and behavioral effects of drugs that contributed to their selfadminis…”
Psilocybin mushrooms of the world: an identification guide
(1997) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-4479 · Cited by 78 · cited 4× · see citing works
“More than 100 species of mushrooms, in the genus Psilocybe, contain psilocybin (Johnson and Griffiths, 2017; Stamets, 1996).”
InfluentialPsilocybin-induced stimulus control in the rat
Winter, J. C., Rice, K. C., Amorosi, D. J., & Rabin, R. A. (2007) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2007.06.003 · Cited by 75 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Its agonist activity at the 5-hydroxytryptamine (HT)2A receptor appears to account partially for its behavioral effects, however, the mechanisms of action of its full range of effects have not been fully elucidated (Nichols, 2016; Winter et al., 2007).”
Regulation of human research with LSD in the United States (1949-1987)
Bonson, K. R. (2017) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-017-4777-4 · Cited by 74 · cited 4× · see citing works
“In those days this general approach was permitted for drugs that were not approved for therapeutic use (Bonson, 2018).”
InfluentialAbramson, H. A., Jarvik, M. E., Gorin, M. H., & Hirsch, M. W. (1956) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.1956.9916206 · Cited by 72 · cited 1× · see citing works
“However, physical dependence and withdrawal, which refer to adverse effects upon discontinuing repeated use of a drug, have not been documented (Abramson et al., 1956; Abramson and Rolo, 1965; Balestrieri, 1967; Isbell, 1959a; Isbell et al., 1961; Passie et al., 2002; Wolbach et al., 1962).”
LSD before Leary: Sidney Cohen's Critique of 1950s Psychedelic Drug Research
Novak, S. (1997) · Isis · doi:10.1086/383628 · Cited by 71 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…in 1965, and led Sandoz to discontinue manufacturing and marketing Please cite this article in press as: Johnson, M.W., et al., The abuse potent Substances Act, Neuropharmacology (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neu of Indocybin® in 1966 (Belouin and Henningfield, 2018; Bonson, 2018; Novak, 1997).”
InfluentialHuman Abuse Liability Assessment by Measurement of Subjective and Physiological Effects
Jasinski, D. R., & Henningfield, J. E. (1989) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e496492006-008 · Cited by 71 · cited 2× · see citing works
“LSD and psilocybin most reliably elevated scores on the LSD scale, but frequently also, at a certain dose and in some individuals, elevated scores on theMBG scale, but generally at a lesser magnitude than opioids and stimulants (Haertzen and Hickey, 1987; Jasinski and Henningfield, 1989; Jasinski et al., 1984).”
Self-citationMonitoring risk: Post marketing surveillance and signal detection
Dart, R. C. (2009) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.08.011 · Cited by 69 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…and storage, and d) a post-marketing surveillance plan to provide the FDAwith timely and comprehensive communication of unintended consequences (Blanchette et al., 2015; Brandenburg et al., 2017; Dart, 2009; Dasgupta and Schnoll, 2009; U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2015; Wu and Juhaeri, 2016).”
Illegal Drugs Laws: Clearing a 50-Year-Old Obstacle to Research
Nutt, D. (2015) · PLoS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002047 · Cited by 67 · cited 3× · see citing works
“As discussed elsewhere in this journal issue and in other publications (Nutt, 2015; Nutt et al., 2013; Scientific American Editors, 2014; Sinha, 2001; Spillane, 2004; Woodworth, 2011), legal restrictions have greatly constrained research; however, research did not altogether Please cite this…”
Walsh, Z., Hendricks, P. S., Smith, S. D., Kosson, D. S., Thiessen, M. S., Lucas, P., & Swogger, M. T. (2016) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881116642538 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationMiniature Mushroom Stones from Guatemala
de Borhegyi, S. F. (1961) · American Antiquity · doi:10.2307/278737 · Cited by 63 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…Spain (Akers et al., 2011) 4000 BCE-900 CE e Mushroom stones and other artifacts from cultures throughout the Americas, including Mayan (de Borhegyi, 1961; Lowy, 1971; Schultes, 1969; Schultes et al., 2001; Truttman, 2012) 1600 e Spanish colonizers documented religious mushroom use by…”
An Analysis of the Function of Drugs in the Stimulus Control of Operant Behavior
Harris, R. T., & Balster, R. L. (1971) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-0788-5_7 · Cited by 60 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For example, Harris and Balster compared psilocybin to amphetamine in a rodent model for assessing behavioral and discriminative effects (Harris and Balster, 1971).”
Can psychedelic compounds play a part in drug dependence therapy?
Sessa, B., & Johnson, M. W. (2015) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.114.148031 · Cited by 58 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Data important in understanding the safety, mechanisms of action, and potential future indications for psilocybin-assisted treatment have included the treatment of substance use disorders (Bogenschutz et al., 2015; Garcia-Romeu et al., 2014; Johnson et al., 2012, 2014, 2017; Johnson and Griffiths, 2017; Nichols et al.…”
Self-citationExperienced Drug Users Assess the Relative Harms and Benefits of Drugs: A Web-Based Survey
Carhart-Harris, R. L., & Nutt, D. (2013) · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs · doi:10.1080/02791072.2013.825034 · Cited by 54 · cited 3× · see citing works
“In a similar study (Carhart-Harris and Nutt, 2013), experienced drug users rated harms to “self” and to “others.”
(2006) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-419239-3.x5036-x · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Les champignons hallucinogènes du Mexique /
Kraft, M.-M. (1959) · BCU · doi:10.22005/bcu.18361 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Heal, D. J., Gosden, J., & Smith, S. L. (2018) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.01.049 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
A fatal case of ‘magic mushroom’ ingestion in a heart transplant recipient
Lim, T. H., Wasywich, C. A., & Ruygrok, P. (2012) · Internal Medicine Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1445-5994.2012.02955.x · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Debating the Controlled Substances Act
Spillane, J. F. (2004) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2004.04.011 · Cited by 49 · cited 3× · see citing works
“As discussed elsewhere in this journal issue and in other publications (Nutt, 2015; Nutt et al., 2013; Scientific American Editors, 2014; Sinha, 2001; Spillane, 2004; Woodworth, 2011), legal restrictions have greatly constrained research; however, research did not altogether”
InfluentialStudies on the Diethylamide of Lysergic Acid (LSD-25)
Isbell, H. (1957) · A M A Archives of Neurology & Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archneurpsyc.1957.02330340026002 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) as a discriminative cue: Drugs with similar stimulus properties
Schechter, M., & Rosecrans, J. A. (1972) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/bf00422707 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Brandenburg, N. A., Bwire, R., Freeman, J., Houn, F., Sheehan, P., & Zeldis, J. B. (2017) · Drug Safety · doi:10.1007/s40264-016-0501-2 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Sexton, J. D., Nichols, C. D., & Hendricks, P. S. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00896 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationMutagenicity testing of 3 hallucinogens: LSD, psilocybin and‡ 9-THC using the micronucleus test
Went, G. (1978) · Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/bf01923013 · Cited by 43 · cited 1× · see citing works
“A micronucleus study in mice found no evidence that psilocybin administration resulted in Please cite this article in press as: Johnson, M.W., et al., The abuse potent Substances Act, Neuropharmacology (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neu chromosome breaking (Van Went, 1978).”
InfluentialBigwood, J., & Beug, M. W. (1982) · Journal of Ethnopharmacology · doi:10.1016/0378-8741(82)90014-9 · Cited by 42 · cited 4× · see citing works
“Cultivated psilocybin-containing mushrooms have been shown to vary in psilocybin content by a factor of 4, while “street samples” of psilocybin-containing mushrooms have been shown to vary in psilocybin content by an astonishing factor of 10 (Bigwood and Beug, 1982).”
InfluentialStudies with psychedelic drugs in human volunteers
Sellers, E. M., Romach, M. K., & Leiderman, D. B. (2018) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.11.029 · Cited by 42 · cited 8× · see citing works
“Nonetheless, the pharmacology and mechanisms of action of psilocybin and LSD are similar in many respects, although psilocybin is shorter acting and at least 100 times less potent than LSD (Isbell, 1959a; Sellers et al., 2017).”
InfluentialClinical, biochemical and psychologic effects of psilocybin.
Hollister, L. E. (1961) · PubMed · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Wasson, R. G. (1959) · Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.2164-0947.1959.tb00681.x · Cited by 39 · cited 2× · see citing works
“indigenous people (Mazatec society in Mexico) since European colonization (Wasson, 1959; Wasson and Wasson, 1957)”
Trends in drug use among drivers killed in U.S. traffic crashes, 1999–2010
Rudisill, T. M., Zhao, S., Abate, M. A., Coben, J. H., & Zhu, M. (2014) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2014.04.003 · Cited by 36 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The exception to this trend appears to be the category of “hallucinogens” (Rudisill et al., 2014).”
Involvement of 5-HT receptor subtypes in the discriminative stimulus properties of mescaline
Appel, J. B., & Callahan, P. M. (1989) · European Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/0014-2999(89)90041-1 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Corti, E. C., & ENGLAND, P. J. (1932) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 32 · see citing works
New Records of Mushroom Stones from Guatemala
Lowy, B. (1971) · Mycologia · doi:10.1080/00275514.1971.12019194 · Cited by 32 · cited 8× · see citing works
“Then, following earlier suggestive evidence by R. Schultes (Schultes, 1939, 1940), R.G. Wasson became the first non-indigenous individual to participate in and document sacramental psilocybin-containing mushroom use by indigenous people (Mazatec society in Mexico) since European colonization (Wasson, 1959; Wasson and…”
InfluentialHistorical overview of psychoactive mushrooms
Matsushima, Y., Eguchi, F., Kikukawa, T., & Matsuda, T. (2009) · Inflammation and Regeneration · doi:10.2492/inflammregen.29.47 · Cited by 31 · cited 2× · see citing works
“While Indocybin was used safely as an adjunct to psychotherapy, eventually the societal backlash in the US and other countries in the 1960s (Matsushima et al., 2009) led to a ban on marketing and possession of “hallucinogenic” drugs in the US in 1965, and led Sandoz to discontinue manufacturing and marketing”
Signal detection in post-marketing surveillance for controlled substances
Dasgupta, N., & Schnoll, S. H. (2009) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.05.019 · Cited by 30 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The REMSwould be based on the studies and approaches used to ensure safe and effective use and could include: a) limitations on the dose and the number of doses that could be administered to a given patient, b) administration of the drug in clinic settings with psychological support of specially trained staff, c) a va…”
Wu, J., & Juhaeri, J. (2016) · Clinical Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2016.11.007 · Cited by 30 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The REMSwould be based on the studies and approaches used to ensure safe and effective use and could include: a) limitations on the dose and the number of doses that could be administered to a given patient, b) administration of the drug in clinic settings with psychological support of specially trained staff, c) a va…”
Drug Regulation and Innovation: Empirical Evidence and Policy Options
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STUDIES ON MODIFICATION OF THE MORPHINE ABSTINENCE SYNDROME BY DRUGS
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Effects of Psilocybin-Assisted Therapy on Major Depressive Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial
Davis, A. K., Barrett, F. S., May, D. G., Cosimano, M. P., Sepeda, N. D., Johnson, M. W., Finan, P. H., & Griffiths, R. R. (2021) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.3285 · Cited by 1,301 · see citing works
Self-citationPsychedelics and Psychedelic-Assisted Psychotherapy
Reiff, C. M., Richman, E. E., Nemeroff, C. B., Carpenter, L. L., Widge, A. S., Rodriguez, C. I., Kalin, N. H., McDonald, W. M., & and the Work Group on Biomarkers and Novel Treatments, A. D. O. T. A. P. A. C. O. R. (2020) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2019.19010035 · Cited by 649 · see citing works
“procedure based on research evidence (143).”
BackgroundJohnson, M. W., Hendricks, P. S., Barrett, F. S., & Griffiths, R. R. (2019) · Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.11.010 · Cited by 506 · see citing works
Self-citationGukasyan, N., Davis, A. K., Barrett, F. S., Cosimano, M. P., Sepeda, N. D., Johnson, M. W., & Griffiths, R. R. (2022) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811211073759 · Cited by 425 · see citing works
“Although evidence to date suggests that psilocybin has relatively low abuse potential (Johnson et al., 2018), there remains concern for its potential to cause harm or encourage substance misuse in vulnerable populations (Reiff et al., 2020; Schatzberg, 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationHesselgrave, N., Troppoli, T. A., Wulff, A. B., Cole, A. B., & Thompson, S. M. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2022489118 · Cited by 378 · see citing works
Adverse effects of psychedelics: From anecdotes and misinformation to systematic science
Schlag, A. K., Aday, J. S., Salam, I., Neill, J. C., & Nutt, D. (2022) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811211069100 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
“Using the Addiction Research Centre Inventory (ARCI), Johnson et al. (2018) found a major difference in the abuse potential associated with psychedelics, as compared with other substances that carry a high risk of compulsive pattern of repetitive use and abuse, as LSD and psilocybin were repeatedly…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAnderson, B. T., Danforth, A., Daroff, P. R., Stauffer, C., Ekman, E., Agin-Liebes, G., Trope, A., Boden, M. T., Dilley, P. J., Mitchell, J., et al. (2020) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100538 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
“and a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision [41].”
BackgroundCessation and reduction in alcohol consumption and misuse after psychedelic use
Garcia‐Romeu, A., Davis, A. K., Erowid, F., Erowid, E., Griffiths, R. R., & Johnson, M. W. (2019) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881119845793 · Cited by 287 · see citing works
“…of AUD (WHO, 2018), and the limitations of current treatments, psychedelic-assisted treatment of AUD constitutes an innovative, timely, and compelling direction for future research for which safety and feasibility have been established (Bogenschutz et al., 2015; Johnson et al., 2008, 2018).”
BackgroundSelf-citationReviewing the Potential of Psychedelics for the Treatment of PTSD
Krediet, E., Bostoen, T., Breeksema, J., van Schagen, A., Passie, T., & Vermetten, E. (2020) · International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyaa018 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
“flashbacks) when used in medically supervised settings (Cohen, 1960; Johnson et al., 2018; Malleson, 1971).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLong-term effects of psychedelic drugs: A systematic review
Aday, J. S., Mitzkovitz, C. M., Bloesch, E. K., Davoli, C. C., & Davis, A. K. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.03.017 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
The Therapeutic Potential of Psilocybin
Lowe, H. I. C., Toyang, N., Steele, B., Valentine, H., Grant, J. F., Ali, A., Ngwa, W., & Gordon, L. (2021) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules26102948 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Sartori, S. B., & Singewald, N. (2019) · Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2019.107402 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Increased amygdala responses to emotional faces after psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression
Roseman, L., Demetriou, L., Wall, M. B., Nutt, D. J., & Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2018) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.12.041 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Kuypers, K., Ng, L., Erritzoe, D., Knudsen, G., Nichols, C. D., Nichols, D. E., Pani, L., Soula, A., & Nutt, D. (2019) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881119857204 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
“Although extensive toxicology has been conducted on a single active dose of psilocybin and has been proven to be safe (Brown et al., 2017; Johnson et al., 2018), further research is required to understand better the possible health risks incurred by microdosing, especially in relation to cardiac…”
BackgroundMicrodosing psychedelics: personality, mental health, and creativity differences in microdosers
Anderson, T., Petranker, R., Rosenbaum, D., Weissman, C. R., Dinh-Williams, L.-A., Hui, K., Hapke, E., & Farb, N. A. S. (2019) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-018-5106-2 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
“Although research on LSD and psilocybin suggests low risks for abuse or harmful effects (van Amsterdam et al. 2011; Halpern and Pope 1999; Johnson et al. 2018), a small percentage of users are at risk of developing persisting perceptual effects (Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder;…”
BackgroundGarcia‐Romeu, A., Davis, A. K., Erowid, E., Erowid, F., Griffiths, R. R., & Johnson, M. W. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00955 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
“Importantly, serotonin 2A psychedelics are not themselves physiologically addictive (105), yet they seemingly enhance processes often targeted by accepted addiction treatments such as insight, self-efficacy, and spirituality, which may underlie these lasting effects (93, 94, 96).”
BackgroundSelf-citationEthics and ego dissolution: the case of psilocybin
Smith, W. R., & Sisti, D. (2021) · Journal of Medical Ethics · doi:10.1136/medethics-2020-106070 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Psychedelic microdosing benefits and challenges: an empirical codebook
Anderson, T., Petranker, R., Christopher, A., Rosenbaum, D., Weissman, C. R., Dinh-Williams, L.-A., Hui, K., & Hapke, E. (2019) · Harm Reduction Journal · doi:10.1186/s12954-019-0308-4 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Chronic pain and psychedelics: a review and proposed mechanism of action
Castellanos, J. P., Woolley, C., Bruno, K. A., Zeidan, F. Z., Halberstadt, A. L., & Furnish, T. J. (2020) · Regional Anesthesia & Pain Medicine · doi:10.1136/rapm-2020-101273 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Vargas, A. S. O., Luís, Â., Barroso, M., Gallardo, E., & Pereira, L. (2020) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines8090331 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Case analysis of long-term negative psychological responses to psychedelics
Bremler, R., Katati, N., Shergill, P., Erritzøe, D., & Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-41145-x · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Kadriu, B., Greenwald, M., Henter, I. D., Gilbert, J. R., Kraus, C., Park, L. T., & Zarate, C. A. (2021) · International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyaa087 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Drug-drug interactions between psychiatric medications and MDMA or psilocybin: a systematic review
Sarparast, A., Thomas, K., Malcolm, B., & Stauffer, C. S. (2022) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-022-06083-y · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Perez, N., Langlest, F., Mallet, L., De Pieri, M., Sentissi, O., Thorens, G., Seragnoli, F., Zullino, D., Kirschner, M., Kaiser, S., et al. (2023) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2023.07.011 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“Animal studies have indicated that psilocybin has a low addiction and physical dependence potential ( Johnson et al., 2018 ), and national surveys report low rates of abuse (European Monitoring centre for Drugs and Drug Ad-diction).”
Bender, D., & Hellerstein, D. J. (2022) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-021-06049-6 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Heuschkel, K., & Kuypers, K. P. C. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00224 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
“(64) shows that, although psilocybin has some level of abuse potential and risk, there is no strong evidence of physical dependence, and it can in general be safely used under medical supervision.”
BackgroundMethodA narrative synthesis of research with 5-MeO-DMT
Ermakova, A. O., Dunbar, F., Rucker, J., & Johnson, M. W. (2021) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811211050543 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Self-citationThe therapeutic potential of microdosing psychedelics in depression
Kuypers, K. P. C. (2020) · Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/2045125320950567 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Neural Mechanisms and Psychology of Psychedelic Ego Dissolution
Stoliker, D., Egan, G. F., Friston, K. J., & Razi, A. (2022) · Pharmacological Reviews · doi:10.1124/pharmrev.121.000508 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
In vivo production of psilocybin in E. coli
Adams, A. M., Kaplan, N. A., Wei, Z., Brinton, J. D., Monnier, C. S., Enacopol, A. L., Ramelot, T. A., & Jones, J. A. (2019) · Metabolic Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.ymben.2019.09.009 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“After being named a Schedule I compound in the US with implementation of the Controlled Substance Act of 1970 (Johnson et al., 2018), research efforts involving psilocybin were abandoned for other less regulated bioactive molecules; however, experts in the field have suggested a reclassification to…”
BackgroundMethodKozłowska, U., Nichols, C. D., Wiatr, K., & Figiel, M. (2021) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/jnc.15509 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“…generally accepted that this class of the drug has little to no addictive potential (Fábregas et al., 2010; rev in Dos Santos et al., 2018; rev in Johnson et al., 2018), there is a slight risk for certain patients to experience sporadically occurring adverse psychological effects (Sarris et al.,…”
BackgroundSelf-reported negative outcomes of psilocybin users: A quantitative textual analysis
Bienemann, B., Ruschel, N. S., Campos, M. L. P., Negreiros, M., & Mograbi, D. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0229067 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
The therapeutic potential of psilocybin: a systematic review
van Amsterdam, J., & van den Brink, W. (2022) · Expert Opinion on Drug Safety · doi:10.1080/14740338.2022.2047929 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“Moreover, psilocybin has a low harm potential [4] and a favorable safety profile [5–8].”
Morton, E., Sakai, K., Ashtari, A., Pleet, M., Michalak, E. E., & Woolley, J. (2023) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811221131997 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“Given limited evidence and the complex regulatory status of psychedelic treatments (Johnson et al., 2018), it may be some time before prescription of psilocybin as a pharmacological treatment for BD is possible.”
BackgroundMicrodosing psychedelics: Demographics, practices, and psychiatric comorbidities
Rosenbaum, D., Weissman, C., Anderson, T., Petranker, R., Dinh-Williams, L.-A., Hui, K., & Hapke, E. (2020) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881120908004 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“Various studies have demonstrated the safety and low addiction potential of psychedelics in healthy and clinical populations (Johnson et al., 2018; Nichols, 2016).”
BackgroundWitkin, J. M., Martin, A. E., Golani, L. K., Xu, N. Z., & Smith, J. L. (2019) · Advances in pharmacology · doi:10.1016/bs.apha.2019.03.002 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Psychedelic perceptions: mental health service user attitudes to psilocybin therapy
Corrigan, K., Haran, M., McCandliss, C., McManus, R., Cleary, S., Trant, R., Kelly, Y., Ledden, K., Rush, G., O’Keane, V., et al. (2022) · Irish Journal of Medical Science (1971 -) · doi:10.1007/s11845-021-02668-2 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Associations between lifetime classic psychedelic use and markers of physical health
Simonsson, O., Sexton, J. D., & Hendricks, P. S. (2021) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881121996863 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“The research has been conducted in controlled settings and has primarily focused on classic psychedelics, which are a subclass of psychedelics, with little evidence of physiological toxicity, known to act as agonists primarily at 5-HT2A receptors (dos Santos et al., 2018; Johnson et al., 2018; Winkelman, 2014).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationPsychedelics as an emerging novel intervention in the treatment of substance use disorder: a review
Divito, A. J., & Leger, R. F. (2020) · Molecular Biology Reports · doi:10.1007/s11033-020-06009-x · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Kopra, E. I., Ferris, J., WINSTOCK, A. R., Young, A. H., & Rucker, J. (2022) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811221084063 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“…al., 2021; Kopra et al., 2022; Petranker et al., 2020) and ayahuasca (Lawn et al., 2017) – psilocybin is a physiologically safe substance relative to other psychoactive drugs with no evidence of neurophysiological deficits, organ damage or addiction potential (Johnson et al., 2018; Nichols, 2016).”
BackgroundPsilocybin in neuropsychiatry: a review of its pharmacology, safety, and efficacy
Dodd, S., Norman, T. R., Eyre, H. A., Stahl, S. M., Phillips, A., Carvalho, A. F., & Berk, M. (2023) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852922000888 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Psychedelic therapy's transdiagnostic effects: A research domain criteria (RDoC) perspective
Kelly, J. R., Gillan, C. M., Prenderville, J., Kelly, C., Harkin, A., Clarke, G., & O'Keane, V. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.800072 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“Compared to other recreational substances, psychedelics exhibit minimal reinforcing effects and are among the least harmful, with minor physiological side effects (24, 214, 215).”
BackgroundRoss, S., Agrawal, M., Griffiths, R. R., Grob, C. S., Berger, A. M., & Henningfield, J. E. (2022) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2022.109174 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Self-citationZeifman, R. J., & Wagner, A. C. (2020) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2019.11.001 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Novel ethical and policy issues in psychiatric uses of psychedelic substances
Smith, W., & Appelbaum, P. S. (2022) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2022.109165 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Ethical and Practical Considerations for the Use of Psychedelics in Psychiatry
Barber, G., & Dike, C. C. (2023) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/appi.ps.20220525 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Gandy, S., Forstmann, M., Carhart-Harris, R. L., Timmermann, C., Luke, D. P., & Watts, R. (2020) · Health Psychology Open · doi:10.1177/2055102920978123 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“…et al., 2020; Nutt et al., 2013), with clinicians calling on such restrictions to be revised to more fairly reflect their relative harm and potential benefit and to facilitate greater access for research and potential medical development (Johnson et al., 2018; Nutt et al., 2020; Rucker, 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialUse of psilocybin (“mushrooms”) among US adults: 2015–2018
Yockey, R. A., & King, K. A. (2021) · Journal of Psychedelic Studies · doi:10.1556/2054.2020.00159 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
On the Relationship between Classic Psychedelics and Suicidality: A Systematic Review
Zeifman, R. J., Singhal, N., Breslow, L., & Weissman, C. R. (2021) · ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science · doi:10.1021/acsptsci.1c00024 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Psychedelic Commercialization: A Wide-Spanning Overview of the Emerging Psychedelic Industry
Aday, J. S., Barnett, B. S., Grossman, D., Murnane, K. S., Nichols, C. D., & Hendricks, P. S. (2023) · Psychedelic Medicine · doi:10.1089/psymed.2023.0013 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationThe emerging role of psilocybin and MDMA in the treatment of mental illness
Gill, H., Gill, B., Chen-Li, D. C. J., El‐Halabi, S., Rodrigues, N. B., Cha, D. S., Lipsitz, O., Lee, Y. L., Rosenblat, J. D., Majeed, A., et al. (2020) · Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/14737175.2020.1826931 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Maia, L. O., Beaussant, Y., & Garcia, A. C. M. (2022) · Journal of Pain and Symptom Management · doi:10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2022.01.024 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Toward Synergies of Ketamine and Psychotherapy
Mathai, D. S., Mora, V., & Garcia‐Romeu, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.868103 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Psychiatric risks for worsened mental health after psychedelic use
Marrocu, A., Kettner, H., Weiss, B., Zeifman, R. J., Erritzoe, D., & Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2024) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811241232548 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Despite evidence supporting psychedelics as catalysts of psychotherapeutic processes, and their low physiological toxicity and risk of dependence (Johnson et al., 2018; Schlag et al., 2022), psychedelic interventions are not risk free, perhaps especially when their use is divorced from…”
BackgroundInfluentialPsychedelic therapy: a roadmap for wider acceptance and utilization
Marks, M., & Cohen, I. G. (2021) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01530-3 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
The Emerging Field of Psychedelic Psychotherapy
Barber, G., & Aaronson, S. T. (2022) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-022-01363-y · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Psilocybin for End-of-Life Anxiety Symptoms: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Yu, C., Yang, F., Yang, S., Tseng, P., Stubbs, B., Yeh, T., Hsu, C., Li, D., & Liang, C. (2021) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2021.0209 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Use and abuse of dissociative and psychedelic drugs in adolescence
Bates, M. L. S., & Trujillo, K. A. (2021) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2021.173129 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“In humans, classic psychedelics are generally considered to be mildly reinforcing, but lack the abuse potential of other substances (Degenhardt et al., 2010; Das et al., 2016; Johnson et al., 2018).”
Petranker, R., Anderson, T., Maier, L. J., Barratt, M. J., Ferris, J., & WINSTOCK, A. R. (2020) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881120953994 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“Neither of these intervention studies reported any adverse effects, consistent with the relatively benign safety profile of these substances (Johnson et al., 2018; Nutt et al., 2010).”
ResultLuoma, J. B., Sabucedo, P., Eriksson, J., Gates, N., & Pilecki, B. C. (2019) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2019.10.003 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“(Noorani, Garcia-Romeu, Swift, Griffiths, & Johnson, 2018).”
Metabolism of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD): an update
Libânio Osório Marta, R. F. (2019) · Drug Metabolism Reviews · doi:10.1080/03602532.2019.1638931 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Moreover, the dependence potential of psychoactive drugs such as LSD, psilocybin or mescaline is very low, and they are not considered to be reinforcing substances (O’Brien 2001; Nichols 2004; Johnson et al. 2018).”
BackgroundBelouin, S. J., Averill, L. A., Henningfield, J. E., Xenakis, S. N., Donato, I., Grob, C. S., Berger, A., Magar, V., Danforth, A. L., & Anderson, B. T. (2022) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2022.109214 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citationClassic psychedelics and alcohol use disorders: A systematic review of human and animal studies
Calleja‐Conde, J., Morales-Garcia, J. A., Echeverry‐Alzate, V., Bühler, K., Giné, E., & López‐Moreno, J. A. (2022) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.13229 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Yaden, D. B., Berghella, A. P., Regier, P. S., Garcia‐Romeu, A., Johnson, M. W., & Hendricks, P. S. (2021) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103380 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Self-citationCarbonaro, T. M., Johnson, M. W., & Griffiths, R. R. (2020) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-020-05533-9 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Self-citationPsychedelics and virtual reality: parallels and applications
Aday, J. S., Davoli, C. C., & Bloesch, E. K. (2020) · Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/2045125320948356 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“23 In addition, while psychedelics are non-toxic (i.e., do not damage mammalian organ systems) 48 and have low potential for abuse, 49 the drugs are not risk-free as they can lead to psychologically challenging experiences for some individuals.”
BackgroundSexton, J. D., Nichols, C. D., & Hendricks, P. S. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00896 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationPsychedelic Mushrooms in the USA: Knowledge, Patterns of Use, and Association With Health Outcomes
Matzopoulos, R., Morlock, R., Morlock, A., Lerer, B., & Lerer, L. B. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.780696 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“Animal studies have shown that they lack reinforcing properties that induce self-administration, which limits the potential for abuse as well as withdrawal symptoms (29, 30).”
Kratom Abuse Potential 2021: An Updated Eight Factor Analysis
Henningfield, J. E., Wang, D. W., & Huestis, M. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.775073 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“2 (Henning fi eld et al., 2018a; Johnson et al., 2018).”
Self-citationWitkin, J. M., Knutson, D. E., Rodriguez, G. J., & Shi, S. X.-Y. (2018) · Current Pharmaceutical Design · doi:10.2174/1381612824666180730104707 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Jones, G. M., & Nock, M. K. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-06580-2 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Sakloth, F., Leggett, E., Moerke, M. J., Townsend, E. A., Banks, M. L., & Negus, S. S. (2019) · Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037/pha0000253 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Psychotherapy with Psilocybin for Depression: Systematic Review
Dawood-Hristova, J. J., & Pérez‐Jover, V. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13040297 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“In addition, the studies presented in this work did not report any cases of potential abuse or addiction to psilocybin, being a substance with a low addictive risk and no evidence that it causes any withdrawal symptoms [2,25].”
BackgroundLake, S., & Lucas, P. (2024) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2024.104507 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Martin, D. A., Gyawali, U., & Calu, D. J. (2020) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.12926 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“This study examining the effects of 5-HT2A stimulation on fentanyl demand was motivated by renewed clinical interest in 5-HT2A agonists, such as psilocybin, for treating psychiatric illnesses including depression,(10,11) and addiction.(35,36) Previous studies in rats compared the effects of morphine alone with morphin…”
BackgroundNiles, H. F., Fogg, C., Kelmendi, B., & Lazenby, M. (2021) · BMC Palliative Care · doi:10.1186/s12904-021-00889-x · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“At the same time, stigma around psychedelics persists [25] despite their benign safety profile compared to similarly classified controlled substances [26, 27].”
BackgroundYu, C., Liang, C., Yang, F., Tu, Y., Hsu, C., Carvalho, A. F., Stubbs, B., Thompson, T., Tsai, C., Yeh, T., et al. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11040938 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“In the 1950s and the 1960s, psilocybin was used to treat psychological distress in clinical trials; in the 1970s, with the enactment of the Controlled Substances Act, its use was discontinued, and it was classified as a Schedule I drug [2].”
MethodPepe, M., Hesami, M., de la Cerda, K. A., Perreault, M. L., Hsiang, T., & Jones, A. M. P. (2023) · Biotechnology Advances · doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2023.108247 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Psilocybin’s effects on cognition and creativity: A scoping review
Bonnieux, J. N., VanderZwaag, B., Premji, Z., Garcia‐Romeu, A., & García-Barrera, M. A. (2023) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811231179801 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“These stringent regulations prompted an approximately 25-year period of limited advancement in psychedelic research (Belouin and Henningfield, 2018; Johnson et al., 2018).”
BackgroundHenningfield, J. E., Coe, M. A., Griffiths, R. R., Belouin, S. J., Berger, A. M., Coker, A. R., Comer, S. D., Heal, D. J., Hendricks, P. S., Nichols, C. D., et al. (2022) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2022.109220 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationPsilocybin-Assisted Compassion Focused Therapy for Depression
Pots, W. T. M., & Chakhssi, F. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.812930 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Psychedelics in neuroinflammation: Mechanisms and therapeutic potential
de Deus, J. L., Maia, J. M., Soriano, R. N., Amorim, M. R., & Branco, L. G. S. (2025) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2025.111278 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Analysis of Psilocybin-Assisted Therapy in Medicine: A Narrative Review
Ziff, S., Stern, B., Lewis, G., Majeed, M., & Gorantla, V. R. (2022) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.21944 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“Tolerance to the reinforcing effects builds rapidly in users who take psilocybin repeatedly [13].”
BackgroundInfluentialStrauss, D., Ghosh, S. B., Murray, Z., & Gryzenhout, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Forests and Global Change · doi:10.3389/ffgc.2022.813998 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Validation of a new instrument for assessing attitudes on psychedelics in the general population
Žuljević, M. F., Buljan, I., Leskur, M., Kaliterna, M., Hren, D., & Duplančić, D. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-23056-5 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Roberts, C. A., Osborne-Miller, I., Cole, J. C., Gage, S. H., & Christiansen, P. (2020) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881120936508 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“Psilocybin abuse potential has never been assessed to standards set out by the Food and Drug Administration’s 2017 Guidance: Assessment of the Abuse Potential of Drugs (Johnson et al., 2018).”
BackgroundUse of Psychedelics for Pain: A Scoping Review
Goel, A., Rai, Y., Sivadas, S., Diep, C., Clarke, H. A., Shanthanna, H., & Ladha, K. S. (2023) · Anesthesiology · doi:10.1097/aln.0000000000004673 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Psychedelics as Novel Therapeutics in Alzheimer’s Disease: Rationale and Potential Mechanisms
Garcia‐Romeu, A., Darcy, S., Jackson, H., White, T., & Rosenberg, P. B. (2021) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2021_267 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“These compounds represent a novel frontier in the field of psychiatry as possibly transdiagnostic pharmacotherapies with low toxicity and addiction risk, and the potential for long-lasting benefits (Johnson et al. 2018).”
BackgroundPearson, C., Siegel, J. S., & Gold, J. A. (2021) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jns.2021.120096 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Psychedelic-Assisted Therapy for People with Eating Disorders
Gukasyan, N., Schreyer, C. C., Griffiths, R. R., & Guarda, Á. S. (2022) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-022-01394-5 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationMolecular targets of psychedelic‐induced plasticity
Jaster, A. M., Revenga, M. D. L. F., & González‐Maeso, J. (2021) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/jnc.15536 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“Currently, however, psychedelics are not considered addictive— although some can produce tolerance in rodents (Smith et al., 2014), they lack reinforcement effects (Johnson et al., 2018).”
BackgroundThe Role of Psychedelics and Counseling in Mental Health Treatment
Curtis, R., Roberts, L. C., Graves, E. G., Rainey, H. T., Wynn, D. D., Krantz, D., & Wieloch, V. (2020) · Journal of Mental Health Counseling · doi:10.17744/mehc.42.4.03 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
DellaCrosse, M., Pleet, M., Morton, E., Ashtari, A., Sakai, K., Woolley, J., & Michalak, E. (2022) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0279073 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“These mushrooms have been used in ritual and healing contexts for thousands of years [21, 22], and despite schedule I status designation [23], an estimated 9.68% of adults in the United States have used psilocybin at least once [24].”
InfluentialStrategies for resolving challenging psychedelic experiences: insights from a mixed-methods study
Wood, M. J., McAlpine, R. G., & Kamboj, S. K. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-79931-w · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Boehnke, K. F., Cox, K., Weston, C. L., Herberholz, M., Glynos, N. G., Kolbman, N., Fields, C. W., Barron, J., & Kruger, D. J. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1224551 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Accordingly, the expeditious revision of regulations and recommendations that are incongruent with our best understanding of medical reality should be a paramount priority (32).”
BackgroundEffects of classic psychedelic drugs on turbulent signatures in brain dynamics
Cruzat, J., Perl, Y. S., Escrichs, A., Vohryzek, J., Timmermann, C., Roseman, L., Luppi, A. I., Ibáñez, A. M., Nutt, D. J., Carhart-Harris, R. L., et al. (2022) · Network Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/netn_a_00250 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Wang, E. Y., Mathai, D. S., Gukasyan, N., Nayak, S. M., & Garcia‐Romeu, A. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-78736-1 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Psilocybin for major depressive disorder: a systematic review of randomized controlled studies
Li, L., Mo, Y., Shi, Z.-M., Huang, X., Ning, Y.-P., Wu, H., Yang, X.-H., & Zheng, W. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1416420 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Thal, S. B., Wieberneit, M., Sharbanee, J. M., Skeffington, P., Baker, P., Bruno, R., Wenge, T., & Bright, S. J. (2022) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811221127954 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Serotonergic psychedelics (in the doses that are recommended for administration) are physiologically safe (Nichols, 2016), non-addictive (Johnson et al., 2018), and long-term adverse effects related to research procedures or substances have not been reported in clinical trials (Bender and…”
BackgroundPsilocybin, an Effective Treatment for Major Depressive Disorder in Adults - A Systematic Review
Watford, T., & Masood, N. (2024) · Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience · doi:10.9758/cpn.23.1120 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“…reinitiating interest back into psyche-delics, with US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-ap- proved clinical studies indicating strong potential for psi-locybin-assisted psychotherapy in treating a range of mental health disorders but this research is scarce with strict regulatory constraints [5].”
Background
- Authors
- Johnson, M. W., Griffiths, R. R., Hendricks, P. S., & Henningfield, J. E.
- Affiliations
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- University of Alabama (US)
- Corresponding author
- Johnson, Matthew W.
- Venue
- Neuropharmacology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2018-11
- Volume
- 142
- Pages
- 143-166
- ISSN
- 0028-3908 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6791528
- OpenAlex
- W2806419184
- Cited by
- 354
- References
- 180
- Citations by year
- 2026: 36 · 2025: 61 · 2024: 57 · 2023: 55 · 2022: 60 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 33 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 1
- FWCI
- 3.50
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Neuropharmacology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Heffter Research Institute
- NIH (RO1DA03889)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychedelics and Drug Studies
- Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Toxicology › Forensic Toxicology and Drug Analysis
- Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Pharmacology › Alkaloids: synthesis and pharmacology
- Keywords
- psilocybin, abuse liability, Controlled Substances Act, drug scheduling, classic psychedelics, substance use disorders, adverse effects, psychosis, risk management, dose control
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Drug and Narcotic Control, Hallucinogens, Humans, Psilocybin, Substance-Related Disorders
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