Psychometric evaluation of the altered states of consciousness rating scale (OAV)
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: The OAV questionnaire has been developed to integrate research on altered states of consciousness (ASC). It measures three primary and one secondary dimensions of ASC that are hypothesized to be invariant across ASC induction methods. The OAV rating scale has been in use for more than 20 years and applied internationally in a broad range of research fields, yet its factorial structure has never been tested by structural equation modeling techniques and its psychometric properties have never been examined in large samples of experimentally induced ASC. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The present study conducted a psychometric evaluation of the OAV in a sample of psilocybin (n = 327), ketamine (n = 162), and MDMA (n = 102) induced ASC that was obtained by pooling data from 43 experimental studies. The factorial structure was examined by confirmatory factor analysis, exploratory structural equation modeling, hierarchical item clustering (ICLUST), and multiple indicators multiple causes (MIMIC) modeling. The originally proposed model did not fit the data well even if zero-constraints on non-target factor loadings and residual correlations were relaxed. Furthermore, ICLUST suggested that the "oceanic boundlessness" and "visionary restructuralization" factors could be combined on a high level of the construct hierarchy. However, because these factors were multidimensional, we extracted and examined 11 new lower order factors. MIMIC modeling indicated that these factors were highly measurement invariant across drugs, settings, questionnaire versions, and sexes. The new factors were also demonstrated to have improved homogeneities, satisfactory reliabilities, discriminant and convergent validities, and to differentiate well among the three drug groups. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The original scales of the OAV were shown to be multidimensional constructs. Eleven new lower order scales were constructed and demonstrated to have desirable psychometric properties. The new lower order scales are most likely better suited to assess drug induced ASC.
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MDMA does not produce mystical-type experiences as measured using a variety of scales related to altered states of consciousness.
“it does not produce mystical-type experiences as measured using a variety of scales related to altered states of consciousness”
From Psychedelics and Other Psychoplastogens for Treating Mental Illness. (2021) · cites this paper as [240]
The Results (MIMIC Modeling; page unavailable) report stronger spiritual-experience scores for psilocybin and ketamine than for MDMA. That comparison does not establish that MDMA produces no mystical-type experiences; the paper evaluates altered-state scales rather than demonstrating their absence under MDMA. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe 42-item version of the 5D-ASC has adequate psychometric properties, with a Cronbach's coefficient alpha of .83 for the 11-factorial structure.
“This 42-item version has shown to have adequate psychometric properties, with Cronbach’s coefficient alpha of.83 for the 11-factorial structure (78).”
From Ayahuasca-assisted meaning reconstruction therapy for grief: a non-randomized clinical trial protocol (2025) · cites this paper as [78]
Results, ‘Construction of new OAV Scales’ (page unavailable), describes a final 42-item model retaining 11 factors. Results, ‘Reliability Assessment’ (page unavailable), reports generally good reliability for its 11 new scales, but does not report a Cronbach’s alpha of .83 for the 42-item, 11-factor structure. The specific coefficient attributed to this source is therefore unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMDMA functions as a stimulant and results in subjective effects including altered responses to social stimuli and experience of social emotion, including heightened feelings of empathy, love, and compassion.
“MDMA also functions as a stimulant and results in subjective effects including, most relevant to this paper, altered responses to social stimuli and experience of social emotion, including heightened feelings of empathy, and feelings of love (27) and compassion (28).”
From MDMA-Assisted Therapy as a Means to Alter Affective, Cognitive, Behavioral, and Neurological Systems Underlying Social Dysfunction in Social Anxiety Disorder (2021) · cites this paper as [27]
The Methods (Samples and Data Collection Procedures; page unavailable) describe MDMA administration to healthy volunteers, and the Results (MIMIC Modeling; page unavailable) compare its subjective effects with those of other drugs. But the passages do not characterize MDMA as a stimulant or report altered responses to social stimuli or heightened empathy, love, or compassion; searches for those terms found no such finding. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPeople ingesting MDMA report feeling peace, safety, and love and a subjective sense of desire to be with others.
“At a subjective level, people ingesting MDMA report feeling peace, safety, and love (27) and a subjective sense of desire to be with others (44), which comports with observations that MDMA increases motivation to affiliate with others during active dosing.”
From MDMA-Assisted Therapy as a Means to Alter Affective, Cognitive, Behavioral, and Neurological Systems Underlying Social Dysfunction in Social Anxiety Disorder (2021) · cites this paper as [27]
The Discussion (page unavailable) reports a very strong effect of MDMA on the OAV’s ‘blissful state’ scale, supporting the general claim of positive subjective feelings. Our copy does not establish that participants specifically reported peace, safety, and love. The desire to be with others is attached to a separate citation in the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMDMA appears to elicit self-transcendent emotions more broadly.
“In addition, MDMA appears to elicit self-transcendent emotions more broadly.”
From MDMA-Assisted Therapy as a Means to Alter Affective, Cognitive, Behavioral, and Neurological Systems Underlying Social Dysfunction in Social Anxiety Disorder (2021) · cites this paper as [27]
The Discussion reports very strong effects of MDMA on the OAV ‘blissful state’ scale, supporting an effect on a positive emotional experience. It does not establish that MDMA elicits self-transcendent emotions broadly; the Results instead report stronger spiritual experiences with psilocybin than with MDMA. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.81)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The most commonly reported experience while taking MDMA is a blissful state characterized by feelings of pleasure, peace, and love.
“The mostly commonly reported experience while taking MDMA is a blissful state characterized by feelings of pleasure, peace, and love (27).”
From MDMA-Assisted Therapy as a Means to Alter Affective, Cognitive, Behavioral, and Neurological Systems Underlying Social Dysfunction in Social Anxiety Disorder (2021) · cites this paper as [27]
The Discussion (page unavailable) describes a very strong effect of MDMA on the OAV ‘blissful state’ scale. It does not establish that bliss was the most commonly reported MDMA experience or specify pleasure, peace, and love as its defining feelings. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredStuderus et al. (2010) conducted a psychometric evaluation of the OAV dimensions, found them to be multidimensional, and constructed 11 new lower-ordered factors from the OAV.
“Studerus et al. (2010) conducted a psychometric evaluation of the OAV dimensions and found them to be multidimensional. Their paper further included a critique of Dittrich’s original investigations, which argued that the OAV was etiology independent. To address their findings, the authors constructed 11 new lower-ordered factors from the OAV.”
From Assessment of the acute subjective psychedelic experience: A review of patient-reported outcome measures in clinical research on classical psychedelics (2024) · cites this paper as Studerus et al., 2010
The subjective experience shared phenomenological similarities with ayahuasca and other serotonergic psychedelics such as psilocybin, including alterations of consciousness captured by the 11 subscales of the 5D-ASC.
“Overall, the subjective experience shared phenomenological similarities with ayahuasca and other serotonergic psychedelics such as psilocybin (19, 49), including alterations of consciousness captured by the 11 subscales of the widely used 5D-ASC scale (63, 75).”
From Potential therapeutic effects of an ayahuasca-inspired N,N-DMT and harmine formulation: a controlled trial in healthy subjects (2024) · cites this paper as [63]
Research shows that people taking MDMA feel more authentic and experience enhanced positive emotions that might lead to shifts in interpersonal behavior that alter their social context, resulting in a beneficial feedback loop.
“In addition, research shows that people taking MDMA feel more authentic (166) and experience enhanced positive emotions (27) that might lead to shifts in interpersonal behavior that alter their social context, resulting in a beneficial feedback loop.”
Both the 5D-ASC and its 11 subscales interpretation have been found to have good psychometric properties.
“Both the 5D-ASC (Studerus, 2012) and the 11 subscales (Studerus et al., 2010) interpretation have been found to have good psychometric properties.”
From Assessment of the acute subjective psychedelic experience: A review of patient-reported outcome measures in clinical research on classical psychedelics (2024) · cites this paper as Studerus et al., 2010
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Ego-dissolution and psychedelics: validation of the ego-dissolution inventory (EDI).
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Predicting responses to psychedelics: a prospective study
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Psychedelics, meditation, and self-consciousness
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Emotional breakthrough and psychedelics: Validation of the Emotional Breakthrough Inventory
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“…(Strassman, 1995; Strassman et al., 1994) and the various forms of Dittrich’s Altered States of Consciousness questionnaires (Dittrich, 1975, 1998; Studerus et al., 2010), including the Altered States of Consciousness Rating Scale (OAV) and the Five-Dimensional Altered States of Consciousness…”
InfluentialFinding the self by losing the self: neural correlates of ego-dissolution under psilocybin
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“, 2004) evaluated the classic psychedelic compounds N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), mescaline, and psilocybin in rhesus monkeys with histories of selfadministering 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), a compound which is not a classic psychedelic but which produces some overlapping subjective effects in humans (Stu…”
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The subjective effects of psychedelics may not be necessary for their enduring therapeutic effects
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MethodThe paradoxical psychological effects of lysergic acid diethylamide LSD
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Long-lasting subjective effects of LSD in normal subjects.
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A systematic study of microdosing psychedelics
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Effect of Psilocybin on Empathy and Moral Decision-Making
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Self-citationAlterations of consciousness and mystical-type experiences after acute LSD in humans
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Self-citationAltered network hub connectivity after acute LSD administration
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Effects of serotonin 2A/1A receptor stimulation on social exclusion processing
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Psychedelics and Other Psychoplastogens for Treating Mental Illness.
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Differential effects of MDMA and methylphenidate on social cognition
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Psychedelic Drugs in Biomedicine
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Positive expectations predict improved mental-health outcomes linked to psychedelic microdosing
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Mismatch negativity encoding of prediction errors predicts S-ketamine-induced cognitive impairments
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Modeling ketamine effects on synaptic plasticity during the mismatch negativity
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Neuroticism is associated with challenging experiences with psilocybin mushrooms
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Drug-drug interactions between psychiatric medications and MDMA or psilocybin: a systematic review
Sarparast, A., Thomas, K., Malcolm, B., & Stauffer, C. S. (2022) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-022-06083-y · Cited by 88 · see citing works
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Psychedelics, Sociality, and Human Evolution
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Acute effects of intravenous DMT in a randomized placebo-controlled study in healthy participants
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“The 5 Dimensions of Altered States of Consciousness (5D-ASC) scale [30, 31] was used as the primary outcome measure and was administered 150 min after drug administration to retrospectively rate peak drug effects.”
Kiraga, M. K., Mason, N. L., Uthaug, M. V., van Oorsouw, K. I. M., Toennes, S. W., Ramaekers, J. G., & Kuypers, K. P. C. (2021) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.721537 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
A review on research and evaluation methods for investigating self-transcendence
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Study Protocol for “Psilocybin as a Treatment for Anorexia Nervosa: A Pilot Study”
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Self-citationvan Oorsouw, K., Toennes, S. W., & Ramaekers, J. G. (2022) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-021-06046-9 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
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MDMA and MDMA-assisted therapy
Wolfgang, A. S., Fonzo, G. A., Gray, J. C., Krystal, J. H., Grzenda, A., Widge, A. S., Kraguljac, N. V., McDonald, W. M., Rodriguez, C. I., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2025) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.20230681 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
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Neural Correlates of the Shamanic State of Consciousness
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Studies with psychedelic drugs in human volunteers
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Systematic review of psychometric instruments used in research with psychedelics
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“Furthermore, we considered the Five-Dimensional Altered States of Consciousness Questionnaire (5D-ASC) as a single instrument, irrespective of whether it was analyzed with the five dimensions (Bodmer, 1989) dimensions (Studerus et al., 2010) subscale.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialActive inference as a computational framework for consciousness
Vilas, M. G., Auksztulewicz, R., & Melloni, L. (2022) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-021-00579-w · Cited by 28 · see citing works
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Luoma, J., & Lear, M. K. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.733893 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“In addition, research shows that people taking MDMA feel more authentic (166) and experience enhanced positive emotions (27) that might lead to shifts in interpersonal behavior that alter their social context, resulting in a beneficial feedback loop.”
BackgroundInfluentialTolerability, assessment, and prediction of psilocybin-induced altered states of consciousness
Studerus, E. (2012) · University of Zurich · doi:10.5167/uzh-164092 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationSabucedo, P., Andión, O., Neimeyer, R. A., Soto-Angona, O., Javkin, J., Haro, J. M., Farré, M., & González, D. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1484736 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“In this study, the 42-item version will be used (78), comprised of fi ve different dimensions: (1) Oceanic Boundlessness, (2) Anxious Ego, (3) Visionary Restructuralization, (4) Auditory Alterations, and (5) Reduction of Vigilance (RV).”
What does it mean for consciousness to be multidimensional? A narrative review
Páleník, J. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1430262 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“While there are other questionnaires describing altered states of consciousness using a number of dimensions (Pekala et al., 1986; Studerus et al., 2010; Ali et al., 2012), the ICI is directly related by its authors to the two dimensions of consciousness in their model.”
Background
- Authors
- Studerus, E., Gamma, A., & Vollenweider, F. X.
- Affiliations
- University of Zurich (CH)
- University Hospital Zurich (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Studerus, Erich
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2010-08-31
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- e12412
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2930851
- OpenAlex
- W2075969679
- Cited by
- 683
- References
- 79
- Citations by year
- 2026: 74 · 2025: 87 · 2024: 111 · 2023: 94 · 2022: 72 · 2021: 65 · 2020: 33 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 10.16
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- edoc (University of Basel) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich)
- Funders
- Heffter Research Institute
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychedelics and Drug Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Paranormal Experiences and Beliefs
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Keywords
- altered states of consciousness, psychometric assessment, psilocybin, ketamine, MDMA, factor structure, measurement invariance, construct validity, reliability statistics
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Consciousness, Female, Humans, Ketamine, Male, Models, Theoretical, Psilocybin, Psychometrics, Surveys and Questionnaires, Reproducibility of Results, Cluster Analysis, N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine
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