Movement under uncertainty: the effects of the rubber-hand illusion vary along the nonclinical autism spectrum
Open accessAbstract
Recent research has begun to investigate sensory processing in relation to nonclinical variation in traits associated with the autism spectrum disorders (ASD). We propose that existing accounts of autistic perception can be augmented by considering a role for individual differences in top-down expectations for the precision of sensory input, related to the processing of state-dependent levels of uncertainty. We therefore examined ASD-like traits in relation to the rubber-hand illusion: an experimental paradigm that typically elicits crossmodal integration of visual, tactile, and proprioceptive information in an unusual illusory context. Individuals with higher ASD-like traits showed reduced effects of the rubber-hand illusion on perceived arm position and reach-to-grasp movements, compared to individuals with lower ASD-like traits. These differences occurred despite both groups reporting the typical subjective experience of the illusion concerning visuotactile integration and ownership for the rubber hand. Together these results suggest that the integration of proprioceptive information with cues for arm position derived from the illusory context differs between individuals partly in relation to traits associated with ASD. We suggest that the observed differences in sensory integration can be best explained in terms of differing expectations regarding the precision of sensory estimates in contexts that suggest uncertainty.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Among non-clinical adults, increased ASD traits are associated with decreased susceptibility to the rubber-hand illusion.
“Among non-clinical adults, increased ASD traits have been associated with decreased susceptibility to the rubber-hand illusion (Palmer et al., 2013).”
From The impact of atypical sensory processing on social impairments in autism spectrum disorder (2018) · cites this paper as Palmer et al., 2013
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Skinner, R., Martin, J., & Clubley, E. (2001) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1023/a:1005653411471 · Cited by 6,450 · cited 2× · see citing works
“The psychometric properties of this scale have received support for use in non-clinical participants with normal IQ (e.g., Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Hurst, Mitchell, Kimbrel, Kwapil, & Nelson-Gray, 2007; Stewart, Watson, Allcock, & Yaqoob, 2009).”
MethodRubber hands ‘feel’ touch that eyes see
Botvinick, M., & Cohen, J. (1998) · Nature · doi:10.1038/35784 · Cited by 4,410 · see citing works
The weak coherence account: detail-focused cognitive style in autism spectrum disorders
Happé, F., & Frith, U. (2006) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-005-0039-0 · Cited by 2,884 · see citing works
(1989) · UCL Discovery (University College London) · Cited by 2,724 · see citing works
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
Glass, R. M. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/jama/9780195176339.022.529 · Cited by 2,157 · see citing works
Enhanced Perceptual Functioning in Autism: An Update, and Eight Principles of Autistic Perception
Mottron, L., Dawson, M., Soulières, I., Hubert, B., & Burack, J. (2006) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-005-0040-7 · Cited by 1,957 · see citing works
Hohwy, J. (2013) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199682737.001.0001 · Cited by 1,914 · see citing works
Self-citationAttention, uncertainty, and free-energy
Feldman, H., & Friston, K. J. (2010) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2010.00215 · Cited by 1,365 · see citing works
That's my hand! Activity in premotor cortex reflects feeling of ownership of a limb
Ehrsson, H. H., Spence, C., & Passingham, R. E. (2004) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1097011 · Cited by 1,348 · see citing works
The rubber hand illusion revisited: visuotactile integration and self-attribution
Tsakiris, M., & Haggard, P. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.31.1.80 · Cited by 1,328 · see citing works
Autistic Traits in the General Population: A Twin Study
Constantino, J. N., & Todd, R. D. (2003) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.60.5.524 · Cited by 1,317 · see citing works
Motor coordination in autism spectrum disorders: A synthesis and meta-analysis
Fournier, K. A., Hass, C. J., Naik, S. K., Lodha, N., & Cauraugh, J. H. (2010) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-010-0981-3 · Cited by 1,271 · see citing works
When the world becomes ‘too real’: a Bayesian explanation of autistic perception
Pellicano, E., & Burr, D. (2012) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2012.08.009 · Cited by 1,156 · see citing works
Sensory Processing in Autism: A Review of Neurophysiologic Findings
MARCO, E. J., HINKLEY, L. B. N., HILL, S. S., & NAGARAJAN, S. S. (2011) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1203/pdr.0b013e3182130c54 · Cited by 1,112 · see citing works
Time to give up on a single explanation for autism
Happé, F., Ronald, A., & Plomin, R. (2006) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1770 · Cited by 987 · see citing works
What is embodiment? A psychometric approach
Longo, M. R., Schüür, F., Kammers, M. P. M., Tsakiris, M., & Haggard, P. (2008) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2007.12.004 · Cited by 956 · see citing works
If I were you: Perceptual illusion of body swapping
Petkova, V. I., & Ehrsson, H. H. (2008) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003832 · Cited by 953 · see citing works
Brain States: Top-Down Influences in Sensory Processing
Gilbert, C. D., & Sigman, M. (2007) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2007.05.019 · Cited by 936 · see citing works
Action and behavior: a free-energy formulation
Friston, K. J., Daunizeau, J., Kilner, J., & Kiebel, S. J. (2010) · Biological Cybernetics · doi:10.1007/s00422-010-0364-z · Cited by 866 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…relatively long time-scales they are encoded at higher cortical levels, consistent with the idea of more high-level, relatively global context modulation (in essence, trying to anticipate the overall smoothness of the movement given levels of expected uncertainty; cf. Friston et al., 2010, p.235).”
BackgroundVision in autism spectrum disorders
Simmons, D. R., Robertson, A. E., McKay, L. S., Toal, E., McAleer, P., & Pollick, F. E. (2009) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2009.08.005 · Cited by 827 · see citing works
Friston, K. J., & Stephan, K. E. (2007) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-007-9237-y · Cited by 673 · see citing works
Visual Capture of Touch: Out-of-the-Body Experiences With Rubber Gloves.
Pavani, F., Spence, C., & Driver, J. (2000) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00270 · Cited by 608 · see citing works
On the other hand: Dummy hands and peripersonal space
Makin, T. R., Holmes, N. P., & Ehrsson, H. H. (2008) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2008.02.041 · Cited by 530 · see citing works
Happe, F. G. E. (1996) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1996.tb01483.x · Cited by 491 · see citing works
The rubber hand illusion: Sensitivity and reference frame for body ownership.
Costantini, M., & Haggard, P. (2007) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2007.01.001 · Cited by 489 · see citing works
The Rubber Hand Illusion: feeling of ownership and proprioceptive drift do not go hand in hand
Rohde, M., Di Luca, M., & Ernst, M. O. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021659 · Cited by 486 · see citing works
Lloyd, D. M. (2007) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2006.09.013 · Cited by 440 · see citing works
Sensitivity of Smoothness Measures to Movement Duration, Amplitude, and Arrests
Hogan, N., & Sternad, D. (2009) · Journal of Motor Behavior · doi:10.3200/35-09-004-rc · Cited by 440 · see citing works
Top-down predictions in the cognitive brain
Kveraga, K., Ghuman, A. S., & Bar, M. (2007) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2007.06.007 · Cited by 423 · see citing works
The temporal binding deficit hypothesis of autism
BROCK, J., BROWN, C. C., BOUCHER, J., & RIPPON, G. (2002) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579402002018 · Cited by 419 · see citing works
Parkinsonism Reduces Coordination of Fingers, Wrist, and Arm in Fine Motor Control
Teulings, H.-L. H. M., Contreras-Vidal, J. L., Stelmach, G. E., et al. (1997) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1006/exnr.1997.6507 · Cited by 404 · see citing works
The precision of proprioceptive position sense
van Beers, R. J., Sittig, A. C., & van der Gon, J. J. D. (1998) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s002210050525 · Cited by 396 · see citing works
The New Handbook of Multisensory Processing
(2012) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/8466.001.0001 · Cited by 381 · see citing works
The rubber hand illusion in action
Kammers, M. P. M., de Vignemont, F., Verhagen, L., & Dijkerman, H. C. (2008) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.07.028 · Cited by 378 · see citing works
Sensory integration and the perceptual experience of persons with autism
Iarocci, G., & McDonald, J. (2006) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-005-0044-3 · Cited by 376 · see citing works
Plaisted, K. C., O’Riordan, M., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (1998) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00375 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
Altered auditory and multisensory temporal processing in autism spectrum disorders
Kwakye, L. D., Foss-Feig, J. H., Cascio, C. J., Stone, W. L., & Wallace, M. T. (2011) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2010.00129 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
Posserud, M., Lundervold, A. J., & Gillberg, C. (2006) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01462.x · Cited by 307 · see citing works
Rubber Hand Illusion under Delayed Visual Feedback
Shimada, S., Fukuda, K., & Hiraki, K. (2009) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006185 · Cited by 306 · see citing works
The reach–to–grasp movement in children with autism spectrum disorder
Mari, M., Castiello, U., Marks, D., Marraffa, C., & Prior, M. R. (2003) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2002.1205 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
Brozzoli, C., Gentile, G., & Ehrsson, H. H. (2012) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2660-12.2012 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Rinehart, N., Bradshaw, J. L., Brereton, A. V., & Tonge, B. J. (2001) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1023/a:1005617831035 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Holmes, N. P., Snijders, H. J., & Spence, C. J. (2006) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03208768 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
Hurst, R. M., Mitchell, J. T., Kimbrel, N. A., Kwapil, T. K., & Nelson-Gray, R. O. (2007) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.06.012 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
A predictive coding perspective on autism spectrum disorders
van Boxtel, J. J. A., & Lu, H. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00019 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Brain mechanisms associated with top-down processes in perception
Frith, C., & Dolan, R. J. (1997) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.1997.0104 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Susceptibility to Illusions and Performance on Visuospatial Tasks in Individuals with Autism
Ropar, D., & Mitchell, P. (2001) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00748 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Fake hands in action: embodiment and control of supernumerary limbs
Newport, R., Pearce, R., & Preston, C. (2009) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-009-2104-y · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Gestalt perception and local–global processing in high-functioning autism
Bölte, S., Holtmann, M., Poustka, F., Scheurich, A., & Schmidt, L. (2007) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0231-x · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Cascio, C. J., Foss-Feig, J. H., Burnette, C. P., Heacock, J. L., & Cosby, A. A. (2012) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361311430404 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Alternative Bayesian accounts of autistic perception: Comment on Pellicano and Burr
Brock, J. (2012) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2012.10.005 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Mandy, W. P. L., & Skuse, D. H. (2008) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01911.x · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Global Visual Processing and Self-Rated Autistic-like Traits
Grinter, E. J., Maybery, M. T., Beek, P. L. V., Pellicano, E., Badcock, J. C., & Badcock, D. R. (2009) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0740-5 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
On hyperpriors and hypopriors: comment on Pellicano and Burr
Friston, K. J., Lawson, R., & Frith, C. D. (2013) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2012.11.003 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Kammers, M. P. M., Verhagen, L., Dijkerman, H. C., Hogendoorn, H., de Vignemont, F., & Schutter, D. J. L. G. (2008) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21095 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Paton, B., Hohwy, J., & Enticott, P. G. (2012) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1430-7 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Self-citationAre Individuals with Autism and Asperger's Syndrome Susceptible to Visual Illusions ?
Ropar, D., & Mitchell, P. (1999) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00544 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Hohwy, J., & Paton, B. K. (2010) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009416 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Self-citationNobile, M., Perego, P., Piccinini, L., Mani, E., Rossi, A., Bellina, M., & Molteni, M. (2011) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361309356929 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Visuo‐spatial abilities in autism: A review
Mitchell, P., & Ropar, D. (2004) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.348 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Item format and the psychometric properties of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire
Muñiz, J., Garcı́a-Cueto, E., & Fernández, L. M. L. (2004) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.03.021 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
A specific autistic trait that modulates visuospatial illusion susceptibility
Walter, E., Dassonville, P., & Bochsler, T. M. (2009) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0630-2 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Brief Report: Visuospatial Analysis and Self-Rated Autistic-Like Traits
Grinter, E. J., Beek, P. L. V., Maybery, M. T., & Badcock, D. R. (2008) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0658-3 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
The Effect of “Anatomical Plausibility” of Hand Angle on the Rubber-Hand Illusion
Ide, M. (2013) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p7322 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Specificity and Coherence of Body Representations
Kammers, M. P. M., Longo, M. R., Manos Tsakiris, A., Dijkerman, H. C., & Haggard, P. (2009) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p6389 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Autistic traits predict performance on the block design
Stewart, M. E., Watson, J., Allcock, A.-J., & Yaqoob, T. (2009) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361308098515 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
How many motoric body representations can we grasp?
Kammers, M. P. M., Kootker, J. A., Hogendoorn, H., & Dijkerman, H. C. (2009) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-009-2124-7 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Impairment of the rubber hand illusion in focal hand dystonia
Fiorio, M., Weise, D., Önal-Hartmann, C., Zeller, D., Tinazzi, M., & Claßen, J. (2011) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awr026 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Movement Planning and Reprogramming in Individuals With Autism
Nazarali, N., Glazebrook, C. M., & Elliott, D. (2009) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0756-x · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Links between multisensory processing and autism
Donohue, S. E., Darling, E. F., & Mitroff, S. R. (2012) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-012-3223-4 · Cited by 68 · cited 2× · see citing works
“There is evidence distinguishing the neural substrates (Brozzoli, Gentile, & Ehrsson, 2012; Ehrsson et al., 2004; Fiorio et al., 2011; Kammers, Verhagen, et al., 2009) and behavioural coincidence (Holmes, Snijders, & Spence, 2006; Rohde, Di Luca, & Ernst, 2011) of these measures, however,…”
BackgroundWeak Central Coherence: A Cross-Domain Phenomenon Specific to Autism?
Hoy, J. A., Hatton, C., & Hare, D. J. (2004) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361304045218 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
No Proprioceptive Deficits in Autism Despite Movement-Related Sensory and Execution Impairments
Fuentes, C. T., Mostofsky, S. H., & Bastian, A. J. (2010) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1161-1 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Movement-related potentials in high-functioning autism and Asperger's disorder
Rinehart, N., Tonge, B. J., Bradshaw, J. L., Iansek, R., Enticott, P. G., & Johnson, K. A. (2006) · Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology · doi:10.1017/s0012162206000594 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Self-citationVisual information and rubber hand embodiment differentially affect reach-to-grasp actions
Heed, T., Gründler, M., Rinkleib, J., Rudzik, F. H., Collins, T., Cooke, E., & O'Regan, J. K. (2011) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.07.003 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Puzzo, I., Cooper, N. R., Vetter, P., & Russo, R. (2010) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2010.04.060 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Romero, D. H., Van Gemmert, A. W. A., Adler, C. H., Bekkering, H., & Stelmach, G. E. (2003) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-003-1452-2 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Touching My Left Elbow: The Anatomical Structure of the Body Affects the Illusion of Self-Touch
White, R. C., & Davies, A. M. A. (2011) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p6796 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Viewing and feeling touch modulates hand position for reaching
Zopf, R., Truong, S., Finkbeiner, M., Friedman, J., & Williams, M. A. (2011) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.02.012 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Precise minds in uncertain worlds: Predictive coding in autism.
Van de Cruys, S., Evers, K., Van der Hallen, R., Van Eylen, L., Boets, B., de-Wit, L., & Wagemans, J. (2014) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0037665 · Cited by 885 · see citing works
The impact of atypical sensory processing on social impairments in autism spectrum disorder
Thye, M. D., Bednarz, H. M., Herringshaw, A. J., Sartin, E. B., & Kana, R. K. (2018) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2017.04.010 · Cited by 513 · see citing works
Bayesian approaches to autism: Towards volatility, action, and behavior.
Palmer, C. J., Lawson, R. P., & Hohwy, J. (2017) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000097 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
Self-citationPalmer, C. J., Seth, A. K., & Hohwy, J. (2015) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2015.04.007 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Self-citationPalmer, C. J., Paton, B., Kirkovski, M., Enticott, P. G., & Hohwy, J. (2015) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2014.1557 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Self-citationVisual-Tactile Spatial Multisensory Interaction in Adults With Autism and Schizophrenia
Noel, J.-P., Failla, M. D., Quinde-Zlibut, J. M., Williams, Z. J., Gerdes, M., Tracy, J. M., Zoltowski, A. R., Foss-Feig, J. H., Nichols, H., Armstrong, K., et al. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.578401 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
- Authors
- Palmer, C. J., Paton, B., Hohwy, J., & Enticott, P. G.
- Affiliations
- Monash University (AU)
- The Alfred Hospital (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Palmer, Colin J.
- Venue
- Neuropsychologia
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2013-08
- Volume
- 51
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 1942-1951
- ISSN
- 0028-3932 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2000804512
- Cited by
- 55
- References
- 78
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 5
- FWCI
- 3.46
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- philarchive.org
- Locations
- Neuropsychologia (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PhilPapers (PhilPapers Foundation) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Australian Research Council Discovery (DP1311336)
- Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT100100322)
- NHMRC Clinical Research Fellowship (546244)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Multisensory perception and integration
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Tactile and Sensory Interactions
- Keywords
- rubber hand illusion, autistic traits, sensory processing, proprioception, visual-tactile integration, cross-modal integration, uncertainty, top-down expectations, sensory precision, reach-to-grasp, body ownership, individual differences
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Analysis of Variance, Child Development Disorders, Pervasive, Female, Hand, Humans, Illusions, Male, Movement, Pain Measurement, Photic Stimulation, Psychomotor Performance, Somatosensory Disorders, Uncertainty, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
