Regulatory focus and anxiety: a self-regulatory model of GAD-depression comorbidity

Klenk, Megan M.; Strauman, Timothy J.; Higgins, E. Tory

doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.12.003

Cited by 105Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesBehavioral Health and InterventionsChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

Regulatory focus and anxiety: a self-regulatory model of GAD-depression comorbidity

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Klenk, Megan M., Strauman, Timothy J., Higgins, E. Tory·2011·Personality and Individual Differences

DOI 10.1016/j.paid.2010.12.003PMC PMC3079259

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Abstract

The etiology of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), including its high degree of comorbidity with major depressive disorder (MDD), remains a conceptual and clinical challenge. In this article, we discuss the relevance of regulatory focus theory, an influential theory of self-regulation, for understanding vulnerability to GAD as well as GAD/MDD comorbidity. The theory postulates two systems for pursuing desired end states: the promotion and prevention systems. Drawing upon studies documenting the affective and motivational consequences of failing to attain promotion versus prevention goals, as well as the literature linking promotion failure with depression, we propose how dysfunction within the prevention system could lead to GAD - with, as well as without, MDD.

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GAD, especially when comorbid with MDD, is characterized by subjective emotional intensity/distress, greater temperamental negative affect, and activation of motivational systems that prize safety over reward.
“GAD, especially when comorbid with MDD, can be seen as characterized by subjective emotional intensity/distress20, reflecting greater temperamental negative affect25–26 and activation of motivational systems that prize obtaining safety (from perceived threat) over seeking reward27–29 [motivational mechanisms].”
From AN OPEN TRIAL OF EMOTION REGULATION THERAPY FOR GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER AND COOCCURRING DEPRESSION. (2015) · cites this paper as [28]
Comorbidity between GAD and depression is more the rule than the exception, with studies estimating it at up to 80% of cases.
“The comorbidity between GAD and depression is more the rule than the exception (Klenk et al., 2011), with studies estimating it at up to 80% of the cases (Judd et al., 1998; Lamers et al., 2011).”
From A Multiple-Baseline Evaluation of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy Focused on Repetitive Negative Thinking for Comorbid Generalized Anxiety Disorder and Depression (2020) · cites this paper as Klenk et al., 2011
Promotion/prevention goals may be supported by differential neural patterns.
“emerging evidence that promotion/prevention goals may be supported by differential neural patterns (Eddington et al., 2009; Klenk, Strauman, & Higgins, 2011).”
From Extension of the Transdiagnostic Model to Focus on Intolerance of Uncertainty: A Review of the Literature and Implications for Treatment (2014) · cites this paper as Klenk, Strauman, & Higgins, 2011
In GAD, especially when it co-occurs with MDD, primary failure in the prevention system (hyperactivation) can lead to failure (hypoactivation) in the promotion system.
“In accounting for GAD, especially when it co-occurs with MDD, Klenk et al. (2011) postulate primary failure in the prevention system (i.e., hyperactivation) that in turn can lead to failure (e.g., hypoactivation) in the promotion system.”
From Emotion Regulation Therapy: A Mechanism-Targeted Treatment for Disorders of Distress (2017) · cites this paper as Klenk et al., 2011
Individuals with distress disorders frequently experience conflicting pulls from reward/loss and safety/threat systems and lack the means to effectively resolve these motivational conflicts.
“Individuals with distress disorders frequently experience conflicting pulls from reward/loss and safety/threat systems and lack the means to effectively resolve these motivation conflicts.”
From Emotion Regulation Therapy: A Mechanism-Targeted Treatment for Disorders of Distress (2017) · cites this paper as Klenk et al., 2011

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Using neuroimaging to individualize TMS treatment for depression: Toward a new paradigm for imaging-guided intervention
Luber, B. M., Davis, S. W., Bernhardt, E. R., Neacsiu, A. D., Kwapil, L., Lisanby, S. H., & Strauman, T. J. (2017) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.12.083 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Self-citation
Daily shifts in regulatory focus: The influence of work events and implications for employee well‐being
Koopmann, J. M., Lanaj, K., Bono, J. E., & Campana, K. L. (2016) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2105 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Regulatory focus as a psychological micro-foundation of leaders' exploration and exploitation activities
Tunçdoğan, A., van den Bosch, F., & Volberda, H. (2015) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.06.004 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Parental child-rearing strategies influence self-regulation, socio-emotional adjustment, and psychopathology in early adulthood: Evidence from a retrospective cohort study
Baker, C. N., & Hoerger, M. P. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.12.034 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Outcome interdependence shapes the effects of prevention focus on team processes and performance
Beersma, B., Homan, A. C., Kleef, G. A. V., & Dreu, C. K. W. D. (2013) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2013.02.003 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Too Much of a Good Thing? Trade-offs in Promotion and Prevention Focus
Scholer, A. A., & Higgins, E. T. (2012) · The Oxford Handbook of Human Motivation · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195399820.013.0005 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Self-citation
Anxiety- rather than depression-like behavior is associated with adult neurogenesis in a female mouse model of higher trait anxiety- and comorbid depression-like behavior
Sah, A., Schmuckermair, C., Sartori, S. B., Gaburro, S., Kandasamy, M., Irschick, R., Klimaschewski, L. P., Landgraf, R., Aigner, L., & Singewald, N. (2012) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/tp.2012.94 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
The impact of bedtime procrastination on depression symptoms in Chinese medical students
Guo, J., Meng, D., Ma, X., Zhu, L., Yang, L., & Mu, L. (2020) · Sleep And Breathing · doi:10.1007/s11325-020-02079-0 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Changes in functional connectivity following treatment with emotion regulation therapy
Scult, M. A., Fresco, D. M., Gunning, F. M., Liston, C., Seeley, S. H., García, E., & Mennin, D. S. (2019) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00010 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“This negative emotionality is characterized by under- and over-activation of reward and safety/threat systems respectively, as well as their co-occurrence (i.e., motivational conflict; Higgins, 1997; Klenk et al., 2011; Scult et al., 2016).”
Background
Reappraisal and suppression mediate the contribution of regulatory focus to anxiety in healthy adults.
Llewellyn, N. M., Dolcos, S. M., Iordan, A. D., Rudolph, K. D., & Dolcos, F. (2013) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0032568 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
The motivation‐anxiety interface in language learning: A regulatory focus perspective
Jiang, C., & Papi, M. (2021) · International Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1111/ijal.12375 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Treatment of Depression from a Self-Regulation Perspective: Basic Concepts and Applied Strategies in Self-System Therapy
Strauman, T. J., & Eddington, K. M. (2016) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-016-9801-1 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Self-citation
Microinterventions targeting regulatory focus and regulatory fit selectively reduce dysphoric and anxious mood
Strauman, T. J., Socolar, Y., Kwapil, L., Cornwell, J. F. M., Franks, B., Sehnert, S., & Higgins, E. T. (2015) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2015.06.003 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Self-citation
Gender differences in self-esteem, unvarnished self-evaluation, future orientation, self-enhancement and self-derogation in a U.S. national sample
Magee, W. J., & Upenieks, L. (2019) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.05.016 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
A Multiple-Baseline Evaluation of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy Focused on Repetitive Negative Thinking for Comorbid Generalized Anxiety Disorder and Depression
Ruiz, F. J., Luciano, C., Flórez, C. L., Suárez-Falcón, J. C., & Cardona-Betancourt, V. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00356 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“The comorbidity between GAD and depression is more the rule than the exception (Klenk et al., 2011), with studies estimating it at up to 80% of the cases (Judd et al., 1998; Lamers et al., 2011).”
Background
Advancing emotion regulation perspectives on psychopathology: the challenge of distress disorders
Mennin, D. S., & Fresco, D. M. (2015) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2015.969624 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Symptoms of Attention‐Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Moderate Suicidal Behaviors in College Students With Depressed Mood
Patros, C. H. G., Hudec, K. L., Alderson, R. M., Kasper, L. J., Davidson, C. L., & Wingate, L. R. (2013) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.21994 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Higher-order structure in the trajectories of depression and anxiety following sudden involuntary unemployment.
Howe, G. W., Hornberger, A. P., Weihs, K. L., Moreno, F., & Neiderhiser, J. M. (2011) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0026243 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Mattering Versus Self-Esteem in University Students: Associations With Regulatory Focus, Social Feedback, and Psychological Distress
Flett, G. L., & Nepon, T. B. (2019) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282919890786 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Comprehensive self-control training benefits depressed college students: A six-month randomized controlled intervention trial
Yang, X., Zhao, J., Chen, Y., Zu, S., & Zhao, J. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.10.014 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Dorsal Dentate Gyrus, a Key Regulator for Mood and Psychiatric Disorders
Sun, D., Mei, L., & Xiong, W. (2023) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2023.01.005 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
The effect of stereotype threat on older people’s clinical cognitive outcomes: investigating the moderating role of dementia worry
Fresson, M., Dardenne, B., Geurten, M., & Meulemans, T. (2017) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2017.1307456 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Emotion Regulation Therapy and Its Potential Role in the Treatment of Chronic Stress-Related Pathology Across Disorders
Renna, M. E., Fresco, D. M., & Mennin, D. S. (2020) · Chronic Stress · doi:10.1177/2470547020905787 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
When fit matters more: The effect of regulatory fit on adaptation to change
Petrou, P., Demerouti, E., & Häfner, M. (2013) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2013.832209 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Unique associations between anxiety, depression and motives for approach and avoidance goal pursuit
Winch, A., Moberly, N. J., & Dickson, J. M. (2014) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2014.976544 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Chronic Treatment with the 5-HT1A Receptor Partial Agonist Tandospirone Increases Hippocampal Neurogenesis
Mori, M., Murata, Y., Matsuo, A., Takemoto, T., & Mine, K. (2014) · Neurological Therapeutics · doi:10.1007/s40120-013-0015-0 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Behaviour problems, maternal internalising symptoms and family relations in families of adolescents and adults with fragile X syndrome
Baker, J. K., Seltzer, M. M., & Greenberg, J. S. (2012) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2012.01580.x · Cited by 34 · see citing works
A Novel Therapeutic Frame for Treating Depression in Group Treating Depression Downhill
Krupnik, V. (2014) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244014523793 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Differentiating everyday lies: A typology of lies based on beneficiary and motivation
Cantarero, K., van Tilburg, W. A. P., & Szarota, P. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.05.013 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Do (Even) Depressed Individuals Believe That Life Gets Better and Better? The Link Between Depression and Subjective Trajectories for Life Satisfaction
Busseri, M. A., & Peck, E. (2014) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702614547265 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Emotional negative events do not protect against false memories in young adults with depressive–anxious personality traits
Toffalini, E., Mirandola, C., Drabik, M. J., Melinder, A. M. D., & Cornoldi, C. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.02.042 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Feeling the green? Value orientation as a moderator of emotional response to green electricity
Nilsson, A., Hansla, A., & Biel, A. (2014) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12258 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Exploring the relations among foreign language enjoyment, ideal L2 self, grit, and growth mindset in EFL learners: A cross-lagged analysis
Fathi, J., Pawlak, M., Kruk, M., & Mohammaddokht, F. (2024) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688241265546 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Culture and Patterns of Reciprocity: The Role of Exchange Type, Regulatory Focus, and Emotions
Deng, Y., Wang, C. S., Aime, F., Wang, L., Sivanathan, N., & Kim, Y. C. (2020) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167220913694 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Depression and Self-Regulation: A Motivational Analysis and Insights from Effort-Related Cardiovascular Reactivity
Brinkmann, K., & Franzén, J. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-1236-0_22 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Heterogeneity in the co‐occurrence of depression and anxiety symptoms among youth survivors: A longitudinal study using latent profile analysis
Wang, Y., Ge, F., Zhang, J., & Zhang, W. (2021) · Early Intervention in Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/eip.13101 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Need for Cognition Is Positively Related to Promotion Focus and Negatively Related to Prevention Focus
Oiknine, A. H., Pollard, K. A., Khooshabeh, P., & Files, B. T. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.606847 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Regulatory Focus, Money Attitudes and Financial Literacy: Evidence from Portuguese Young Adults
Pereira, M. C., & Coelho, F. (2020) · Journal of Family and Economic Issues · doi:10.1007/s10834-020-09662-3 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
The joint effects of promotion and prevention focus on performance, exhaustion and sickness absence among managers and non-managers
Petrou, P., van den Heuvel, M., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2017) · Personnel Review · doi:10.1108/pr-12-2015-0309 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Hubungan Regulasi Diri dengan Kecemasan Menghadapi Dunia Kerja pada Mahasiswa Tingkat Akhir Universitas Syiah Kuala
Jurusan Psikologi Universitas Syiah Kuala, B. A., Azhari, T. R., Mirza, M., & Jurusan Psikologi Universitas Syiah Kuala, B. A. (2016) · Mediapsi · doi:10.21776/ub.mps.2016.002.02.4 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Investigating the structure of regulatory focus: A bifactor analysis
Hodis, F. A. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.01.004 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
The impact of interdependence on behavioral engagement in online communities
Zhang, X., Gong, Y., & Peng, L. (2020) · Marketing Intelligence & Planning · doi:10.1108/mip-05-2019-0285 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
How Flexible are we in Regulating our Emotions? A Discussion on Current Conceptual Frameworks of Emotion Regulation Flexibility, Requirements for Future Research and Potential Practical Implications
Sánchez-López, Á. (2021) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2021.28 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Microglial sex differences in innate high anxiety and modulatory effects of minocycline
Ugursu, B., Sah, A., Sartori, S. B., Popp, O., Mertins, P., Dunay, I. R., Kettenmann, H., Singewald, N., & Wolf, S. A. (2024) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2024.03.035 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Is disgust in obsessive-compulsive disorder mediated by fear of pathogens?
Eyal, T., Dar, R., & Liberman, N. (2020) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102340 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Riding the elephant in the room: Towards a revival of the optimal level of stimulation model
de Aldecoa, P. I., Burdett, E., & Gustafsson, E. (2022) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2022.101051 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
The influence of paternal and maternal parenting styles on adolescents’ regulatory focus: A longitudinal study
Gao, Q., Bian, R., Wan, X., Wei, H., & Qiu, H. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01569-y · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Musicokinetic and exercise therapies decrease the depression level of elderly patients undergoing post-stroke rehabilitation: The moderating effect of health regulatory focus
Zhao, L., Lyu, X., Jiang, H., & Gao, X. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.889510 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Reprint of ‘‘Using neuroimaging to individualize TMS treatment for depression: Toward a new paradigm for imaging-guided intervention’’
Luber, B. M., Davis, S. W., Bernhardt, E. R., Neacsiu, A. D., Kwapil, L., Lisanby, S. H., & Strauman, T. J. (2017) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.03.049 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
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Mindfulness-based stress reduction training supplemented with physiological signals from smartwatch improves mindfulness and reduces stress, but not anxiety and depression
Sumińska, S., & Rynkiewicz, A. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0322413 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The effects of motivational dispositions on oral L2 task emotions and performance: A regulatory focus perspective
Jiang, C., & Papi, M. (2024) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688241287999 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Psychological resistance to AI: How regulatory focus fuels AI anxiety and negative attitudes toward AI
Sapru, A. (2026) · Technology in Society · doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2026.103251 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Reversing the Placebo: Performance‐Branded Experiences Can Undermine Consumer Performance
Banker, S., Gosline, R. R., & Lee, J. K. (2019) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcpy.1131 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Modeling the onset of a depressive episode: A self-regulation perspective
Strauman, T. J. (2021) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.04.003 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Interactive Effect of Individual Differences in Goal Strength and Self-Discrepancies: Examining Negative Affective Outcomes
Stevens, E. N., Bardeen, J. R., Pittman, L. D., & Lovejoy, M. C. (2015) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2015.34.2.161 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Moderating Effects of Prevention-Focus on the Paths from Two Insecure Attachment Dimensions to Depression
Lee, D., Park, J. J., Bae, B. H., & Lim, H.-W. (2018) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.2017.1419159 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Acceptance and adherence to COVID-19 preventive measures are shaped predominantly by conspiracy beliefs, mistrust in science and fear - A comparison of more than 20 psychological variablesPreprint
Hartmann, M., & Müller, P. (2021) · doi:10.31124/advance.16644889.v1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Associations of Delay Discounting Rate with Anxiety Disorder Symptomatology and Diagnoses
Armstrong, C. H., & Hoge, E. A. (2024) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/s40732-023-00582-w · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Reexamining the role of regulatory focus in second language achievement
Wang, L., & Sun, X. (2024) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263124000512 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Exploring pathways from intolerance of uncertainty to worry in adults with generalised anxiety disorder
Wilson, E. J., Abbott, M. J., Norton, A. R., Berle, D., & Rapee, R. (2025) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2025.2478246 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Workplace ostracism and counterproductive work behaviour: parallel mediation of felt accountability and emotional exhaustion
Shankar, U., Kaul, V., Gupta, V., & Mishra, N. K. (2024) · Journal of Management Development · doi:10.1108/jmd-02-2024-0069 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Does a Patient’s Approach to Achieving Goals Influence His or Her Recovery Trajectory After Musculoskeletal Illness?
Vranceanu, A., Reichman, M., Mace, R. A., Mohamadi, A., & Chen, N. C. (2020) · Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research · doi:10.1097/corr.0000000000001374 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Buffering or boosting? The dynamic curvilinear relationship between work-related use of information and communication technologies after-hours and wok procrastination
Liao, G., Feng, L., Zheng, X., & Zhou, J. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30565 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Do we interpret ambiguity and feel according to how we define ourselves? Relationships between self-perception, interpretation biases, and their role on emotional symptoms
Martín-García, Ó., Blanco, I., & Sánchez-López, Á. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1502130 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Differential Effects of an Evolutionary-Based EMDR Therapy on Depression and Anxiety Symptoms: A Case Series Study
Krupnik, V. (2018) · Journal of EMDR Practice and Research · doi:10.1891/1933-3196.12.2.46 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Size Matters Stature Is Related to Diagnoses of Depression in Young Military Men
Krupnik, V., & Cherkasova, M. V. (2014) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244014542783 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The relationship between restrained eating and exercise addiction: The chain mediating role of social physique anxiety and grit
Pan, Y., Xie, C., Wang, P., Qian, J., Xu, L., Zhang, Y., & Wang, K. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105520 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Implicit approach and avoidance motivational changes in GAD patients treated with emotion regulation therapy
Quintero, J. M., Mayville, E. W., Heimberg, R. G., Fresco, D. M., & Mennin, D. S. (2021) · Journal of Behavioral and Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.jbct.2021.05.005 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Individual differences in motivational self-focus modulate context-based affective attention flexibility toward goal-relevant information: An eye-tracking study
Martín-García, Ó., Raedt, R. D., Godara, M., Ottaviani, C., & Sánchez-López, Á. (2022) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2022.101869 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Psychological Resistance to Ai: How Regulatory Focus Fuels Ai Anxiety and Negative Attitudes Toward AiPreprint
Sapru, A. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5396410 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The relationship between regulatory focus, perfectionism, and school burnout
Yasuda, Y., & Goegan, L. D. (2023) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-023-09776-0 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Positioning Strategies in B2B Marketing: The Regulatory Focus Orientation
Kalafatis, S. P., Blankson, C., Boatswain, M., & Tsogas, M. H. (2024) · Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing · doi:10.1080/1051712x.2024.2411455 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The Effects of Intolerance for Uncertainty and Emotional Dysregulation on Worrying : Mediating Effect of Experiential Avoidance
양경은, & Hwan, P. K. (2014) · Korean Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.17315/kjhp.2014.19.1.010 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Anxiety Sensitivity and Decision Making: Positive and Negative Risk Taking in Laboratory and Naturalistic Settings
Kutz, A. M. (2016) · DigitalCommons (California Polytechnic State University) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
What Triggers Mental Disorders? Examining the Role of Increasing Relationships between Self-Regulatory Efficacy Expectations and Behavioral Intensity
Schetter, E. (., & Schwinger, M. (2024) · Psychiatry International · doi:10.3390/psychiatryint5040048 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-regulatory Theory and Weight-Loss Maintenance
Testa, R. J., & Brown, R. T. (2015) · Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings · doi:10.1007/s10880-015-9421-z · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Acceptance and adherence to COVID-19 preventive measures are shaped predominantly by conspiracy beliefs, mistrust in science and fear - A comparison of more than 20 psychological variablesPreprint
Hartmann, M., & Müller, P. (2021) · doi:10.31124/advance.16644889 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
A coffee a day keeps the burden at bay: antecedents and consequences of alertness motives for coffee consumption
Yang, P., & Jing, L. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-07967-w · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Efficacy of Coping with Negative Affect via Alcohol Use Pre- and Post Acute Stress
Willis, M. A., Ran, T., & Lane, S. P. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15121614 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Temporal Network Analysis of Bedtime Procrastination and Depression Among Adolescents: A Prospective Longitudinal Study
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Demanded Wants and Oughts: An Overlooked Distinction in REBT?
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The Relationship Between Client Regulatory Focus and Treatment Use Intentions, Attitudes, Credibility Beliefs, and Outcome Expectations for Psychotherapy
Park, J., Swift, J. K., & Penix, E. A. (2019) · Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy · doi:10.1007/s10879-019-09419-6 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Relationship between Prevention Focus, Money Attitude and Financial Behavior
YİLDİRİM, D., & Özbek, A. (2022) · Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi · doi:10.18037/ausbd.1095237 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A Longitudinal Examination of Regulatory Focus Theory's Application to Adolescent Psychopathology
Klenk, M. M. (2011) · DukeSpace (Duke University) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citation
Correction
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The Role of Optimism and Religious Involvement in the Relationship Between Race-Related Stress and Well-Being
Lee, D. B. (2019) · Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) · doi:10.17615/ah3y-sr54
Repenser la comorbidité psychiatrique : Une revue conceptuelle sous l’angle de la comordibité anxio-dépressivePreprint
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Repenser la comorbidité psychiatrique : Une revue conceptuelle sous l’angle de la comordibité anxio-dépressivePreprint
Coussement, C., & Heeren, A. (2020) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/m8z6w
The Effect of Work Community on Job Transfer Intention: The Mediation Effect of Regulatory Failure and Job Burnout
Kittichokwattana, P., Harun, A. B., & Zain, Z. M. (2022) · International Journal of Economics Business and Management Research · doi:10.51505/ijebmr.2022.6601
Hubungan Regulasi Diri dan Grit dengan Kecemasan Menghadapi Dunia Kerja pada Mahasiswa Akhir Psikologi UNS
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Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Frustration Profiles and Their Associations With Regulatory Focus, Resilience, and Friendship Quality in University Students From New Zealand (Aotearoa) and Hawai'i, USA
Hoo, C. S. (2023) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.24037101

Generalized anxiety disorder within the course of major depressive disorder: examining the utility of the DSM‐IV hierarchy rule
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Generalized anxiety disorder and depression: childhood risk factors in a birth cohort followed to age 32
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Authors: Klenk, M. M., Strauman, T. J., & Higgins, E. T.
Affiliations: Duke University (US)
Columbia University (US)
Corresponding author: Strauman, Timothy J.
ORCID: Strauman, Timothy J.
Higgins, E. Tory
Venue: Personality and Individual Differences
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2011-05
Volume: 50
Issue: 7
Pages: 935-943
ISSN: 0191-8869 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2010.12.003
PMC: PMC3079259
OpenAlex: W2036025989
Cited by: 105
References: 75
Citations by year: 2026: 3 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 5
FWCI: 9.47
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Personality and Individual Differences (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
DukeSpace (Duke University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (R24MH067447, R21MH052281)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords: regulatory focus, generalized anxiety disorder, major depressive disorder, self-regulation, promotion focus, prevention focus, anxiety, depression, motivation

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Regulatory focus and anxiety: a self-regulatory model of GAD-depression comorbidity

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