Sex differences in psychopathology: of gonads, adrenals and mental illness
Open accessAbstract
Stress-related disorders such as anxiety and depression are disproportionately prevalent in women. Women are more likely to experience depression and anxiety disorders during periods of marked hormonal fluctuations, suggesting that gonadal hormones are involved in stress pathology. Depression and anxiety are both associated with aberrant secretion of glucocorticoids, which also show marked fluctuations across the reproductive cycle and in response to gonadal steroids. Thus, interactions between gonadal and stress hormones may play a major role in predisposing females to stress-related disease. The purpose of this brief review is to highlight preclinical data regarding the role of estrogens in depression and anxiety-like behaviors. While it is evident the exogenous estrogens modulate affective behavior in rodents, there is some disagreement in the literature, perhaps related to experimental designs that vary with respect to administration parameters and stress. Beneficial effects of estrogens on mood are most likely due to estrogen receptor (ER)β signaling. The antidepressant and anxiolytic effects of ERβ are consistent with its role in attenuating glucocorticoid responses to stress, suggesting that estrogens, acting at ERβ, may improve mood by suppressing glucocorticoid hyperactivity. However, additional studies demonstrate that ERβ signaling in the hippocampus is sufficient to induce antidepressant and anxiolytic behaviors. Thus, ERβ may improve mood via primary actions on hypothalamic (i.e., paraventricular nucleus) and/or extra-hypothalamic sites. Overall, the preclinical research suggests that selective ER modulators targeting ERβ may be an attractive alternative or adjunct treatment to currently prescribed antidepressants or anxiolytics.
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The onset of gonadal hormone production plays a vital role in stress and HPA axis reactivity, since estrogen secretion influences glucocorticoid hyperactivity.
“The onset of gonadal hormone production plays a vital role in stress and HPA axis reactivity, since estrogen secretion influences GC hyperactivity (122).”
From Developmental Trajectories of Early Life Stress and Trauma: A Narrative Review on Neurobiological Aspects Beyond Stress System Dysregulation (2019) · cites this paper as [122]
Section 3.3 reports that gonadal hormones influence HPA-axis responses to stress, and the Abstract suggests that estrogen acting through ERβ may suppress glucocorticoid hyperactivity. The cited passages do not establish that the onset of gonadal hormone production is the relevant turning point; section 3.3 also says the effect depends on reproductive context. (LLM, conf=0.85)
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“The onset of gonadal hormone production plays a vital role in stress and HPA axis reactivity, since estrogen secretion influences GC hyperactivity (122).”
BackgroundGenetics of Human Social Behavior
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- Authors
- Solomon, M. B., & Herman, J. P.
- Affiliations
- University of Cincinnati (US)
- Corresponding author
- Solomon, Matia B.
- Venue
- Physiology & Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2009-05
- Volume
- 97
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 250-258
- ISSN
- 0031-9384 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4539024
- OpenAlex
- W1969339202
- Semantic Scholar
- 80646188201b4ba962a6ec76248dd7a8c1575e5d
- Cited by
- 272
- References
- 159
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 1.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Physiology & Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (AG12962, R01AG012962)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH 069725, R01MH069725)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Estrogen and related hormone effects
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
- Keywords
- depression, anxiety, estrogen, estrogen receptor beta, glucocorticoids, stress response, gonadal hormones, reproductive cycle, hippocampus, paraventricular nucleus, selective estrogen receptor modulators, antidepressant effects, anxiolytic effects
- MeSH terms
- Adrenal Glands, Mental Disorders, Female, Gonads, Humans, Male, Psychopathology, Sex Characteristics
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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