Sex Differences in Neurodevelopmental Disorders: A Key Role for the Immune System
Open accessAbstract
Sex differences are prominent defining features of neurodevelopmental disorders. Understanding the sex biases in these disorders can shed light on mechanisms leading to relative risk and resilience for the disorders, as well as more broadly advance our understanding of how sex differences may relate to brain development. The prevalence of neurodevelopmental disorders is increasing, and the two most common neurodevelopmental disorders, Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) exhibit male-biases in prevalence rates and sex differences in symptomology. While the causes of neurodevelopmental disorders and their sex differences remain to be fully understood, increasing evidence suggests that the immune system plays a critical role in shaping development. In this chapter we discuss sex differences in prevalence and symptomology of ASD and ADHD, review sexual differentiation and immune regulation of neurodevelopment, and discuss findings from human and rodent studies of immune dysregulation and perinatal immune perturbation as they relate to potential mechanisms underlying neurodevelopmental disorders. This chapter will give an overview of how understanding sex differences in neuroimmune function in the context of neurodevelopmental disorders could lend insight into their etiologies and better treatment strategies.
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Specific immune alterations such as maternal immune activation and infection, as well as differential cytokine and chemokine profiles, have been linked to neurodevelopmental conditions, particularly autism and ADHD.
“Specific immune alterations such as maternal immune activation and infection, as well as differential cytokine and chemokine profiles, have been linked to neurodevelopmental conditions, particularly autism and ADHD279.”
From Sex and gender in neurodevelopmental conditions (2023) · cites this paper as [279]
Research on the intersections of sex/gender and immunology in neurodevelopmental conditions remains scarce.
“Nevertheless, research on the intersections of sex/gender and immunology in neurodevelopmental conditions remains scarce279.”
From Sex and gender in neurodevelopmental conditions (2023) · cites this paper as [279]
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Sex differences in ADHD trajectories across childhood and adolescence
Murray, A. L., Booth, T., Eisner, M., Bonnie Auyeung, B., Murray, G. C., & Ribeaud, D. (2018) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12721 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Carlin, J., George, R. E., & Reyes, T. M. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0063549 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Mast Cells in the Developing Brain Determine Adult Sexual Behavior
Lenz, K. M., Pickett, L. A., Wright, C. L., Davis, K. T., Galan, A., & McCarthy, M. M. (2018) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1176-18.2018 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Self-citationComorbidity of Allergic and Autoimmune Diseases Among Patients With ADHD
Chen, M., Su, T., Chen, Y.-S., Hsu, J.-W., Huang, K., Chang, W.-H., Chen, T., & Bai, Y. (2013) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054712474686 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Cesta, C. E., Öberg, A. S., Ibrahimson, A., Yusuf, I., Larsson, H., Almqvist, C., D'Onofrio, B. M., Bulik, C. M., de la Cruz, L. F., Mataix‐Cols, D., et al. (2019) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291719000424 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
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Is atopy in early childhood a risk factor for ADHD and ASD? A longitudinal study
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The Fetal Hormonal Environment and its Effect on the Morphogenesis of the Genital System
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Sexual dimorphism of microglia and synapses during mouse postnatal development
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Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- [113]Pellis SM, Pellis VC, and Bell HC, The Function of Play in the Development of the social Brain. The American Journal of Play, 2010: p. 278– 296.
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Sorted by citations
Sex and gender in neurodevelopmental conditions
Bölte, S., Neufeld, J., Marschik, P. B., Williams, Z. J., Gallagher, L., & Lai, M.-C. (2023) · Nature Reviews Neurology · doi:10.1038/s41582-023-00774-6 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Where Sex Meets Gender: How Sex and Gender Come Together to Cause Sex Differences in Mental Illness
Christiansen, D. M., McCarthy, M. M., & Seeman, M. V. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.856436 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
- Authors
- Breach, M. R., & Lenz, K. M.
- Affiliations
- The Ohio State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lenz, Kathryn M.
- ORCID
- Lenz, Kathryn M.
- Venue
- Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences
- Publisher
- Springer International Publishing
- Published
- 2022
- Volume
- 62
- Pages
- 165-206
- ISSN
- 1866-3370 (ISSN-L)
- 1866-3389
- PMC
- PMC10286778
- OpenAlex
- W4224238186
- Cited by
- 62
- References
- 296
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 3
- FWCI
- 30.46
- Type
- book chapter
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- Locations
- Current topics in behavioral neurosciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- National Institute of Mental Health (R21MH105826)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Biological Psychiatry › Tryptophan and brain disorders
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetics and Neurodevelopmental Disorders
- Keywords
- sex differences, neurodevelopmental disorders, autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, immune system, neuroimmunity, sexual differentiation, immune dysregulation, brain development, prevalence, symptomatology
- MeSH terms
- Autism Spectrum Disorder, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Female, Humans, Immune System, Male, Pregnancy, Sex Characteristics, Neurodevelopmental Disorders
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