Neural Perspectives on Cognitive Control Development during Childhood and Adolescence
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Since the discovery that patients with damage to the prefrontal cortex (PFC) show similar deficits in cognitive control as young children, the PFC model of cognitive control development has been a popular description of how cognitive control emerges over time. In this review, we show that not only do many studies support this model, but also that more specific models of PFC development can be formulated, according to the functional roles of subregions and by taking into account the distinctions within ventral-dorsal and lateral-medial PFC. We also reveal that the functional development of dorsolateral PFC supports the development of deliberative processes, whereas that of the medial PFC supports the development of internalized decisions. These new conceptualizations may provide better descriptions of the complexity of cognitive control development.
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Cognitive skills such as planning, future thinking, inhibiting inappropriate behaviour, emotion regulation, decision making, and particular forms of memory continue to improve during adolescence.
“At the same time, cognitive skills such as planning, future thinking, inhibiting inappropriate behaviour, emotion regulation, decision making, and particular forms of memory continue to improve during adolescence (figure 2). 144-149”
From The Lancet Psychiatry Commission on youth mental health (2024) · cites this paper as [146]
The ‘A hierarchical representation (basic to complex) of cognitive control’ section reports improvements in working memory, emotion regulation, and delay discounting through adolescence. It also says response inhibition shows no large additional improvement during adolescence. The cited passages do not establish the claimed adolescent improvement in planning or future thinking. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)
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“In this context, it is important to consider that the beginning of adolescence is marked by increased neural development and organization (Galván, 2014), especially in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) along with other brain regions (Casey, Getz, & Galván, 2008; Crone & Steinbeis, 2017).”
BackgroundFerschmann, L., Vijayakumar, N., Grydeland, H., Overbye, K., Mills, K., Fjell, A., Walhovd, K., Pfeifer, J. H., & Tamnes, C. (2020) · Cortex; a journal devoted to the study of the nervous system and behavior · doi:10.31234/osf.io/xw7ua · Cited by 25
Adam, N., Blaye, A., Gulbinaite, R., Arnaud Delorme, A., & Farrer, C. (2020) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12936 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Lemmers-Jansen, I. L. J., Fett, A.-K. J., Shergill, S. S., van Kesteren, M. T. R., & Krabbendam, L. (2019) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00257 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Hraní digitálních her českými adolescenty
Suchá, J., Dolejš, M., Pipová, H., Maierová, E., & Cakirpaloglu, P. (2018) · doi:10.5507/ff.18.24454245 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Plný rozkvět poznávacích funkcí bývá umožněn dozráním příslušných nervových oblastí a synaptickým propojením jednotlivých smyslových analyzátorů (Crone & Steinbeis, 2017).”
Valence bias in metacontrol of decision making in adolescents and young adults.
Bolenz, F., & Eppinger, B. (2020) · Child Development · doi:10.31234/osf.io/5u9jq · Cited by 22
Jones, R. M., & Pattwell, S. S. (2019) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2019.100657 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“They also demonstrated decreases in activation during a spatial working memory task in the left lateral PFC and bilateral medial frontal cortex post-treatment.”
InfluentialNeural signatures of different behavioral types in fairness norm compliance
Gianotti, L. R. R., Nash, K. A., Baumgärtner, T., Dahinden, F. M., & Knoch, D. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-28853-5 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Development of the P300 from childhood to adulthood: a multimodal EEG and MRI study
Øverbye, K., Huster, R. J., Walhovd, K. B., Fjell, A. M., & Tamnes, C. K. (2018) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-018-1755-5 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Chevalier, N., Jackson, J., Roux, A. R., Moriguchi, Y., & Bonnie Auyeung, B. (2019) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2019.100629 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“As cognitive control is achieved through prefrontally-mediated goals biasing information processing in posterior regions, its protracted development is intertwined with the development of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) (Crone and Steinbeis, 2017; Luna et al., 2010; Moriguchi and Hiraki, 2013).”
Electrophysiological and behavioral indices of cognitive conflict processing across adolescence
Øverbye, K., Walhovd, K. B., Fjell, A. M., Tamnes, C. K., & Huster, R. J. (2021) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2021.100929 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Andersen, E., Fiacco, S., Gordon, J. L., Kozik, R. G., Baresich, K. L., Rubinow, D. R., & Girdler, S. S. (2022) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105747 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Wang, M., Dong, G., Wang, L.-X., Zheng, H., & Potenza, M. (2018) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.1076 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Dynamic Adjustments of Midfrontal Control Signals in Adults and Adolescents
Gyurkovics, M., & Levita, L. (2020) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaa258 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Many of these control-related regions, e.g., areas of the prefrontal cortex, show protracted maturation during the adolescent period (Gogtay et al. 2004; Blakemore and Choudhury 2006; Casey et al. 2008; Ordaz et al. 2013; Crone and Steinbeis 2017).”
BackgroundYilmaz, M., Psychogiou, L., Javaid, M., Ford, T. J., & Dunn, B. D. (2019) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2019.103476 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Moisala, M., Salmela, V. R., Carlson, S., Salmela‐Aro, K., Lonka, K., Hakkarainen, K., & Alho, K. (2018) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.1063 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Altered brain activation during reward anticipation in bipolar disorder
Long, X.-P., Wang, X.-L., Tian, F.-F., Cao, Y., Xie, H.-S., & Jia, Z. (2022) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-022-02075-w · Cited by 15 · see citing works
van de Groep, S., Zanolie, K., Burke, S., Brandner, P., Fuligni, A. J., & Crone, E. A. (2022) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2022.101084 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Developmental increases in LPFC activation have been well documented in prior studies on cognitive control (Crone and Steinbeis, 2017), receiving trust (van den Bos et al., 2011), and emotion regulation development (Silvers and Guassi Moreira, 2019).”
ResultSelf-citationBerger, P., & Buttelmann, D. (2021) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13141 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“This development has been closely attributed to the maturation of the prefrontal cortex (Casey et al., 1997; Crone & Steinbeis, 2017; Schroeter et al., 2004) and potentially forms the basis of improvements observed in many domains of cognition in a similar age range, including language (Ibbotson &…”
Zhuo, B., Zhu, M., Cao, B.-H., & Li, F.-H. (2021) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.15113 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“The current study was interested in the context effect on individual's cognitive flexibility, which is one of the core components of executive function (Crone & Steinbeis, 2017; Deak & Wiseheart, 2015; Diamond, 2013; Jurado & Rosselli, 2007; Petruo et al., 2019).”
BackgroundFronto-parietal numerical networks in relation with early numeracy in young children
Zhang, H., Chong-yaw Wee, A., Poh, J. S., Wang, Q., Shek, L. P., Chong, Y. S., Fortier, M. V., Meaney, M. J., Broekman, B. F. P., & Qiu, A. (2018) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-018-1774-2 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
ComBat models for harmonization of resting-state EEG features in multisite studies
Jaramillo-Jiménez, A., Tovar, D., Mantilla-Ramos, Y.-J., Ochoa-Gomez, J. F., Bonanni, L., & Brønnick, K. (2024) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2024.09.019 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Towards a neurodevelopmental cognitive perspective of temporal processing
Buzi, G., Eustache, F., Droit‐Volet, S., Desaunay, P., & Hinault, T. (2024) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-024-06641-4 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
From developmental neuroscience to policy: A novel framework based on participatory research
Toenders, Y. J., Green, K. H., Brinke, L. T., van der Cruijsen, R., van de Groep, S., & Crone, E. A. (2024) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2024.101398 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Lastly, the dlPFC is associated with cognitive control processes related to cognitive flexibility and balancing needs for self and others (Do et al., 2019; Crone and Steinbeis, 2017; Crone and Achterberg, 2022).”
BackgroundSelf-citationLi, K., Yang, J., Becker, B., & Li, X. (2023) · Neurophotonics · doi:10.1117/1.nph.10.2.025011 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Blume, J., Dhanasekara, C. S., Kahathuduwa, C. N., & Mastergeorge, A. (2023) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-023-05961-4 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“…function skills evolve considerably during childhood and has implications for life course outcomes including physical health, academic achievement, and emotional wellbeing (Ahmed et al., 2019, 2021; Crone & Steinbeis, 2017; Moffitt et al., 2011; Thompson & Steinbeis, 2020; Willoughby et al., 2019).”
Wojciechowski, T. W. (2022) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888691.2022.2102008 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Kikas, E., Mädamürk, K., & Šilinskas, G. (2022) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2022.914992 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“students experience during middle school (Hill and Tyson, 2009; Crone and Steinbeis, 2017).”
Intrinsic network interactions explain individual differences in mentalizing ability in adolescents
van Buuren, M., Lee, N. C., Vegting, I., Walsh, R. J., Sijtsma, H., Hollarek, M., & Krabbendam, L. (2020) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107737 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Cognitive control abilities show protracted development throughout adolescence (Crone and Steinbeis, 2017; Luna et al., 2015) and this development appears to be related to the development of mentalizing (Im-Bolter et al., 2016; Vetter et al., 2013).”
BackgroundHubbard, N. A., Romeo, R. R., Grotzinger, H., Giebler, M. A., Imhof, A., Bauer, C. C. C., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2020) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01572 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“However, neural correlates exist between functions and structures of the developing brain and WM (Davidow, Insel, & Somerville, 2018; Crone & Steinbeis, 2017; Luna, Marek, Larsen, Tervo-Clemmens, & Chahal, 2015).”
BackgroundLee, D., Kwak, S., & Chey, J. (2019) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00246 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“In addition, the development Frontiers in Human Neuroscience | www.frontiersin.org 1 July 2019 | Volume 13 | Article 246 of cognitive control capacity continues until late adolescence or early adulthood (Casey et al., 2000; Diamond, 2002; Luna, 2009; Crone and Steinbeis, 2017).”
Backgroundvan Loon, M. V., Orth, U., & Roebers, C. (2024) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105857 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
The role of CU traits, empathy and moral disengagement in bullying
Eilts, J., & Bäker, N. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-04807-7 · Cited by 13
“During childhood and adolescence complex, goal-oriented thinking increases (Crone & Steinbeis, 2017) as does the ability to understand what other people think and feel (Foulkes & Blakemore, 2018).”
Effects of Prior Knowledge on Comprehending Text About Learning Strategies
Kikas, E., Šilinskas, G., Mädamürk, K., & Soodla, P. (2021) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2021.766589 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Perception-action integration in young age—A cross-sectional EEG study
Dilcher, R., Beste, C., Takács, Á., Bluschke, A., Tóth-Fáber, E., Kleimaker, M., Münchau, A. M., & Li, S. (2021) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2021.100977 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Kim‐Spoon, J., Herd, T., Brieant, A. E., Elder, J., Lee, J., Deater-Deckard, K. D., & King‐Casas, B. (2021) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118134 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“The observed decreases in the frontoparietal activation are consistent with prior research demonstrating age-related decreases in brain activation during cognitive control, reflecting more refined and more efficient neural functioning with development (Crone and Steinbeis, 2017; Luna et al., 2010; Tamm et al., 2002).”
Longitudinal Network Re-organization Across Learning and DevelopmentPreprint
McCormick, E. M., Peters, S., Crone, E. A., & Telzer, E. H. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.10.23.353094 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“First, we fit mixed-effects models with only linear and quadratic effects of age on behavioral performance and network modularity during learning separately (Peters et al., 2016; Peters & Crone, 2017) for comparison to more complex models.”
InfluentialSelf-citationDo intrinsic brain functional networks predict working memory from childhood to adulthood?
Zhang, H., Hao, S., Lee, A., Eickhoff, S. B., Pecheva, D., Cai, S., Meaney, M. J., Chong, Y. S., Broekman, B. F. P., Fortier, M. V., et al. (2020) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.25143 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“…body of literature identifies the higher-order association cortex (e.g., frontal and parietal networks) to be associated with WM in late childhood (Crone & Steinbeis, 2017; Klingberg, Forssberg, & Westerberg, 2002; Ullman et al., 2014), adolescence (Finn, Sheridan, Kam, Hinshaw, & D'Esposito,…”
BackgroundBaumgärtner, T., Dahinden, F. M., Gianotti, L. R. R., & Knoch, D. (2019) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.24717 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“…studies using task-independent measures indicates that improved functioning of the LPFC is associated with enhanced capacities for behavioral control and self-control processes (Crone & Steinbeis, 2017; Knoch et al., 2010; Schiller et al., 2014; Steinbeis et al., 2012; Yamagishi et al., 2016).”
MethodEsteban-Cornejo, I., Ortega, F., & Catena, A. (2018) · Acta paediatrica · doi:10.1111/apa.14200 · Cited by 13
“The prefrontal cortex is one of the last brain regions to mature and immature prefrontal activation is associated with lower cognitive control in children and adolescents (1).”
BackgroundInfluentialWade, M., McLaughlin, K. A., Buzzell, G. A., Fox, N. A., Zeanah, C. H., & Nelson, C. A. (2023) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13863 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Comprehension of irony in autistic children: The role of theory of mind and executive function
Song, Y., Nie, Z., & Shan, J. (2023) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.3051 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
““ Hot ” EF refers to cognitive processing under high emotional/ motivated involvement, including delayed gratification and emotional decision-making, which is related to the ventromedial prefrontal and orbital frontal areas (Antonini et al., 2015; Crone & Steinbeis, 2017).”
Does prefrontal connectivity during task switching help or hinder children’s performance?
Schwarze, S. A., Laube, C., Khosravani, N., Lindenberger, U., Bunge, S. A., & Fandakova, Y. (2023) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2023.101217 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Effects of cognitive control strategies on coding learning outcomes in early childhood
Wang, L., Shi, D., Geng, F., Hao, X., Fu, C., & Li, Y. (2022) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2022.2074946 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Cognitive control and its underlying neural correlates, such as the prefrontal cortex (PFC), cannot reach full maturity until late adolescence or early adulthood (Crone & Steinbeis, 2017; Erb & Marcovitch, 2019; Koechlin et al., 2003).”
BackgroundBerger, P., Friederici, A., & Wiesmann, C. G. (2021) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1101/2021.07.02.450852 · Cited by 12
Liu, W., Wang, Z., Liu, Y., & Li, X. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-10751-2 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Petro, N. M., Picci, G., Webert, L. K., Schantell, M. D., Son, J. J., Ward, T. W., McDonald, K. M., Livermore, C. L., Killanin, A. D., Rice, D. L., et al. (2024) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2024.101479 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…that engaging in elevated levels of SCFS behaviors on social media during specific stages of puberty may be associated with altered neural activity in regions integral to the social and cognitive skills that are known to develop during adolescence (Blakemore, 2008; Crone and Steinbeis, 2017).”
Dobbelaar, S., Achterberg, M., van Duijvenvoorde, A. C. K., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Crone, E. A. (2023) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2023.101264 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“, 2022), possibly reflecting more differentiation in behavioral control processes (Crone and Steinbeis, 2017; Zelazo and Carlson, 2012).”
InfluentialSelf-citationAtypical facial mimicry for basic emotions in children with autism spectrum disorder
Liu, S., Wang, Y., & Song, Y.-N. (2023) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2957 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“…inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility and other subcomponents (Zelazo & Carlson, 2012); “Hot” EF refers to the cognitive processing under high emotional / motivated involvement, including delayed gratification and emotional decision-making (Antonini et al., 2015; Crone & Steinbeis, 2017).”
BackgroundNeural Basis of Prejudice and Prejudice Reduction.
Rösler, I. K., & Amodio, D. (2022) · Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2022.10.008 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“In addition to approaches suggested by the adult literature that have been described here, research on the developmental trajectories of neural substrates of learning and decision making (145), theory of mind (146), and cognitive control (147) may offer clues to how prejudice is formed and expressed across the life sp…”
MethodPark, A. T., & Mackey, A. P. (2021) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/mbe.12304 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Executive functioning moderates neural reward processing in youth
Kryza‐Lacombe, M., Christian, I. R., Liuzzi, M. T., Owen, C. E., Hernandez, B. N., Dougherty, L. R., & Wiggins, J. L. (2020) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-020-00851-z · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Godoy, P. B. G., Shephard, E., Milosavljevic, B., Johnson, M. H., Charman, T., The BASIS Team, Baron‐Cohen, S., Bedford, R., Bolton, P., Chandler, S., et al. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04732-9 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
- Authors
- Crone, E. A., & Steinbeis, N.
- Affiliations
- Leiden University (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Crone, Eveline A.
- Venue
- Trends in Cognitive Sciences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2017-03
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 205-215
- ISSN
- 1364-6613 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2584294616
- Cited by
- 287
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 45 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 37 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 7
- FWCI
- 2.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Locations
- Trends in Cognitive Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Leiden Repository (Leiden University) (submittedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (14-001, 453-14-011, 45314001, VICI 453‐14‐001, NWO?VICI 453-14-001)
- Jacobs Foundation
- H2020 European Research Council (681632, 715282)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- prefrontal cortex, childhood, adolescence, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, medial prefrontal cortex, deliberative processes
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Cognition, Humans, Learning, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Prefrontal Cortex
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