Family-based care buffers the stress sensitizing effect of early deprivation on executive functioning difficulties in adolescence

May combine two claims.

Independent SLEs significantly predicted EF in the care-as-usual group, but not in the foster care group.

“Similar to the analysis involving total SLEs, simple slope analyses revealed that the association between independent SLEs and EF was significant among the care-as-usual youth, B [95% CI] = −.26 [−.43, −.11], p < .001, but not the foster care youth, B [95% CI] = −.02 [−.18, .15], p = .43.”

May combine two claims.

At age 16, MFTP was not significantly related to group or total SLEs, and group did not interact with total SLEs.

“As seen from the 95% CI in Model 1 of Table 4, neither group nor total SLEs were significantly associated with MFTP at age 16 years, and there was no significant interaction between group and total SLEs.”

May combine two claims.

At age 16, total SLEs showed a negative association with EF, whereas group status did not.

“As seen from the 95% CI in Model 1 of Table 3, more total SLEs were negatively associated with EF at age 16 years, while group status was not associated with EF.”

May combine two claims.

The pattern for independent SLEs predicting EF was similar to total SLEs, but not for dependent SLEs.

“When broken down into independent and dependent SLEs, this same pattern held for independent SLEs (Model 2), but not dependent SLEs (Model 3).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In the full sample, total SLEs correlated significantly with both independent and dependent SLEs, while the two SLE types correlated only modestly with each other.

“As expected, both dependent and independent SLEs were significantly correlated with total SLEs, but were only modestly correlated with one another, across the whole sample.”

May combine two claims.

Dependent SLEs showed a significant main effect and a significant interaction with group in predicting MFTP, whereas independent SLEs did not.

“However, when broken down into independent and dependent SLEs, a significant main effect of SLEs and a significant interaction between SLEs and group in predicting MFTP were observed for dependent (Model 3) but not independent (Model 2) SLEs.”

May combine two claims.

Dependent SLEs significantly predicted MFTP in the care-as-usual group, but not in the foster care group.

“Simple slope analyses revealed that the association between dependent SLEs and MFTP was significant among the care-as-usual youth, B [95% CI] = −.01 [−.02, −.001], p = .02, but not the foster care youth, B [95% CI] = .003 [−.007, .01], p = .29.”

May combine two claims.

Higher total SLEs correlated negatively with EF, but not with MFTP.

“Total SLEs were negatively correlated with EF (assessed by the CANTAB), but not MFTP.”

May combine two claims.

No association was found between dependent SLEs and either EF or MFTP, whereas independent SLEs were linked to lower EF but not MFTP.

“Dependent SLEs were not associated with either EF or MFTP, whereas more independent SLEs were related to lower EF, but not MFTP.”

May combine two claims.

For care-as-usual adolescents, total SLEs significantly predicted EF, but this was not true for foster care adolescents.

“Simple slope analyses revealed that the association between total SLEs and EF was significant among the care-as-usual youth, B [95% CI] = −.21 [−.35, −.09], p < .001, but not the foster care youth, B [95% CI] = −.04 [−.15, .07], p = .28.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

EF and MFTP were marginally correlated (r = .17, p = .06).

“EF and MFTP were marginally correlated (r = .17, p = .06).”

May combine two claims.

There was no association between institutional rearing and number of total, dependent, or independent SLEs.

“Poisson regression revealed no association between institutional rearing (i.e., never-institutionalized = 0; ever-institutionalized = 1) and the number of total SLEs, B (SE) = −.16 (.09), 95% Wald CI [−.34, .03], Wald χ2 = 2.87, p = .09, dependent SLEs, B (SE) = −.21 (.14), 95% Wald CI [−.49, .07], Wald χ2 = 2.09, p = .15, or independent SLEs, B (SE) = −.15 (.12), 95% Wald CI [−.39, .10], Wald χ2”

May combine two claims.

Foster care intervention was unrelated to the counts of total, dependent, or independent SLEs.

“Moreover, there was no association between foster care intervention (i.e., care-as-usual = 0; foster care = 1) and the number of total SLEs, B (SE) = −.04 (.10), 95% Wald CI [−.24, .17], Wald χ2 = .13, p = .72, dependent SLEs, B (SE) = −.19 (.16), 95% Wald CI [−.50, .12], Wald χ2 = 1.45, p = .23, or independent SLEs, B (SE) = .01 (.14), 95% Wald CI [−.26, .28], Wald χ2 = .01, p = .92.”

May combine two claims.

Sensitivity analyses adjusted for age and sex found that independent SLEs predicted EF and dependent SLEs predicted MFTP only in the care-as-usual group, not in foster care or never-institutionalized youth; these effects did not survive FDR correction across nine tests.

“Controlling for age and sex, the same directional pattern reported above was observed, with independent SLEs predicting EF, and dependent SLEs predicting MFTP, but only among the care-as-usual youth, not the foster care or the never-institutionalized group (note that these effects did not survive FDR correction for nine total tests).”

May combine two claims.

For non-deprived adolescents and those who received early foster care, stressful life events were not related to lower EF or MFTP.

“In contrast, among non-deprived adolescents and those assigned to early foster care intervention, SLEs were not associated with reduced EF or MFTP.”

May combine two claims.

The study assessed only two EF domains, which in this sample differed reliably between deprived and non-deprived youth.

“Third, we only surveyed two domains of EF that have been shown in our sample to be reliably different between deprived and non-deprived youth.”

May combine two claims.

Independent stressful life events were linked to EF performance, whereas dependent stressful life events were linked to MFTP.

“with independent SLEs associated with the former and dependent SLEs associated with the latter.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Participants missing predictor/covariate data were listwise deleted, and there was no additional missing outcome data.

“For all analyses, only participants with complete data on the predictors/covariates were included. There was no additional missing data on the outcomes (EF and MFTP) once missing on the predictors/covariates was accounted for.”

May combine two claims.

The BEIP randomly assigned 136 children raised in institutions to either foster care or care-as-usual, with 72 never-institutionalized children as a comparison group.

“In early childhood, 136 institutionally-reared children were randomly assigned to foster care or care-as-usual; 72 never-institutionalized children served as a comparison group.”

• Also stated in: § Study Design and Participants · plain

  “136 institutionally-reared children were randomly assigned to either high-quality foster care or care-as-usual at an average age of 22 months by drawing names from a hat.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The study's methods and hypotheses were not preregistered, and the sample is relatively small, so the study is exploratory.

“Finally, as the methods and hypotheses were not preregistered, and because the sample is relatively small, we consider this to be an exploratory study.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

EF was assessed with the well-validated CANTAB behavioral measure.

“EF was assessed using a well-validated behavioral measure, the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB; http://www.cantab.com).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A False Discovery Rate correction was applied to account for multiple interaction tests.

“Given that multiple models were tested, we performed a False Discovery Rate (FDR; Benjamini-Hochberg) adjustment to correct for the number of interactions tested (i.e., six total: two outcomes [EF and MFTP] by three categories of SLEs [total, independent, and dependent]).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Analyses controlled for adolescents' sex and age at SLE assessment.

“We controlled for adolescents’ sex and the age (measured in months) at which SLEs were assessed.”

• Also stated in: § Analytic Plan · plain

  “all analyses controlled for participant sex and age at which SLEs were measured.”

May combine two claims.

MFTP serves as a neural marker of EF related to conflict and performance monitoring, with sources at least partly in the dorsomedial PFC.

“The second, mediofrontal theta power (MFTP), is a neural correlate of EF that indexes conflict and performance monitoring. MFTP has been shown in both human and animal models to reflect a readout of neural oscillations arising, at least in part, from the dorsomedial PFC (Cavanagh & Frank, 2014; Narayanan et al., 2013).”

• cites Cavanagh & Frank, 2014 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Narayanan et al., 2013 sourceNot checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Most results did not survive correction for multiple comparisons, so they should be interpreted cautiously and replicated with larger samples.

“However, results were generally not robust to correction for multiple tests, and thus need to be interpreted cautiously and replicated in larger samples.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Lower EF has been linked to vulnerability to many psychiatric conditions and is viewed as a transdiagnostic risk factor.

“Reduced EF is associated with susceptibility to numerous mental health problems, and is therefore thought to be a transdiagnostic risk for psychopathology (Snyder et al., 2015).”

• cites Snyder et al., 2015 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Early adversity heightens reactivity to subsequent stressful events, a stress-sensitization pattern documented for depression, anxiety, aggression, and substance abuse.

“One hypothesis posits that ELA increases sensitivity to the effects of later stressful life events (SLEs) that trigger or exacerbate psychopathology. This “stress sensitization” effect has been reported for depression, anxiety, aggression, and substance abuse (Bandoli et al., 2017; Espejo et al., 2007; McLaughlin et al., 2010; Myers et al., 2014; Roberts et al., 2011).”

• cites Bandoli et al., 2017 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Espejo et al., 2007 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites McLaughlin et al., 2010 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The findings offer preliminary support that extended early deprivation sensitizes adolescents to EF difficulties and that family-based care can buffer this link.

“This study provides preliminary evidence for the stress-sensitizing effect of prolonged early-life deprivation on EF difficulties in adolescence and, perhaps most compellingly, the capacity of family-based care to buffer this association.”

May combine two claims.

The results suggest that extended early deprivation increases sensitivity to later SLEs for both EF and MFTP, while SLEs are unrelated to these outcomes in youth without deprivation histories or those placed in family care early.

“These results suggest that prolonged early deprivation sensitizes individuals to later SLEs with respect to EF and MFTP, whereas SLEs are not associated with EF or MFTP among those without a history of deprivation or those removed from deprived environments and placed into family care early in development.”

May combine two claims.

Foster care might stabilize and protect EF in adolescence, which could in turn benefit psychopathology outcomes.

“In this regard, foster care may have a protective-stabilizing effect on EF during adolescence (Luthar et al., 2000), with positive downstream consequences for psychopathology.”

• cites Luthar et al., 2000 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The behavioral EF measure involved multiple attention and memory functions that may relate more to a broader network centered on dorsolateral PFC.

“Our behavioral measure of EF entailed multiple attention and memory-related functions which may be more strongly related to a broader network centered on the dorsolateral PFC (Petersen & Posner, 2012).”

• cites Petersen & Posner, 2012 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Because of the RCT design, the study offers strong evidence that prolonged early adversity sensitizes EF to stress and that social enrichment after adversity buffers this effect.

“Given the RCT design of this study, we provide strong evidence for the stress-sensitizing effects of prolonged early adversity on measures of EF, and the stress-buffering effects of social enrichment following early adversity.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Early life deprivation raises psychopathology risk, possibly by sensitizing people to recent stress.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Deprivation (ELA) was measured objectively, which lowers the risk of shared-method bias.

“However, our measure of ELA (i.e. deprivation) was objectively assessed, thereby reducing risk of shared-method bias.”

May combine two claims.

The primary interaction effects did not survive multiple-testing correction and need replication.

“The primary interaction effects also did not survive correction for multiple tests and thus require replication.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

SLEs were measured by self-report, which may introduce reporting bias.

“Second, our measure of SLEs was based on self-reports, which could be susceptible to reporting biases.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Longitudinally, early EF predicts later dependent SLEs, and both SLE types predict later EF.

“When the direction of association is considered, early EF is longitudinally associated with later dependent SLEs, while both dependent and independent SLEs are longitudinally associated with later EF (Morrison et al., 2021).”

• cites Morrison et al., 2021 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Relative to prolonged deprivation, foster care has been linked to a smaller decrease in MFTP between ages 12 and 16, which in turn relates to a larger drop in general psychopathology.

“Further supporting this idea, it has been shown that foster care is related to less of a decline in MFTP from age 12 to 16 years compared to prolonged deprivation, which is in turn associated with a greater reduction in general psychopathology over this same period (Buzzell et al., 2020).”

• cites Buzzell et al., 2020 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Family-based care after early deprivation may allow an adaptive physiological stress response, which could support EF engagement and reduce psychopathology risk.

“Thus, family-based care following early deprivation may enable individuals to mount an adaptive physiological response to stressful events, and this may support effective engagement of EF systems that help one to cope with stress, ultimately mitigating risk of psychopathology.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Earlier studies indicate that stress sensitization for psychopathology may be more pronounced for independent than dependent SLEs.

“Prior work suggests that stress sensitization may be stronger for independent compared to dependent SLEs in relation to psychopathology (Harkness et al., 2006; La Rocque et al., 2014; Wade, Zeanah, et al., 2019; Young-Wolff et al., 2012).”

• cites Harkness et al., 2006 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites La Rocque et al., 2014 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Wade, Zeanah, et al., 2019Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Among youth, lower EF has been linked to greater general psychopathology via greater exposure to dependent stress.

“In support of this idea, it has been shown that poor EF is associated with higher general psychopathology among youth through exposure to more dependent stress (Snyder et al., 2019).”

• cites Snyder et al., 2019 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

MFTP reflects cortical activity in dorsomedial PFC regions, including ACC, which supports conflict and performance monitoring.

“MFTP is, by its nature, indexing cortical activity in dorsomedial PFC regions, including the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), which is related to functions such as conflict and performance monitoring (Cavanagh & Frank, 2014; Fiske & Holmboe, 2019).”

• cites Cavanagh & Frank, 2014 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Fiske & Holmboe, 2019Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The study should be viewed as exploratory rather than confirmatory because of its small sample, lack of preregistration, and novel findings.

“First, the current approach should be considered exploratory rather than confirmatory given the relatively small sample, lack of preregistration, and general novelty of the findings”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Stress sensitization likely involves multiple complex mechanisms, including neurobiological structure and function, physiological stress responsiveness, and genetic-neurotransmitter signaling.

“Thus, the mechanisms of stress sensitization are likely complex and may include neurobiological structure and function, physiological stress system responsiveness, and genetic-neurotransmitter signaling.”

May combine two claims.

Medial and lateral PFC support different EF subdomains: medial areas for internalized control and lateral areas for external, rule-based control.

“increasing evidence suggests these structures are associated with distinct subdomains of EF―medial frontal areas are more closely associated with internalized forms of control, whereas lateral structures are more closely linked to external, rule-based control (Crone & Steinbeis, 2017).”

• cites Crone & Steinbeis, 2017Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A study by Fassett-Carman et al. (2022) reported that perceived uncontrollability of dependent stressors, not independent stressors, correlated with cortical thickness in cognitive-control areas such as dlPFC, superior frontal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, and rostral ACC.

“found that perceived lack of control over dependent stressors, but not independent stressors, was associated with cortical thickness in a cluster of regions typically involved in cognitive control, including the dlPFC, superior frontal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, and rostral ACC (Fassett-Carman et al., 2022).”

• cites Fassett-Carman et al., 2022 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Correlations between behavioral and neural measures are often weak or non-significant even when both are assessed on the same task.

“Even when behavior and neural function are captured on the same task, correlations between these are often weak or non-significant (Buzzell et al., 2020; Lamm et al., 2006).”

• cites Buzzell et al., 2020 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Lamm et al., 2006 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Fassett-Carman et al. (2022) found only one independent-SLE association with cortical thickness that survived correction, in lateral orbitofrontal cortex, which was also seen for dependent SLEs.

“the study by Fassett-Carman et al. (2022) revealed only a single association between independent SLEs and cortical thickness that survived correction, which was a cluster in lateral orbitofrontal cortex (though this was also detected for dependent SLEs).”

• cites Fassett-Carman et al., 2022 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Lateral orbitofrontal cortex participates in cognitive control within emotional contexts.

“This region is involved in executing cognitive control within the context of emotion (Kuusinen et al., 2018; Rubien-Thomas et al., 2021).”

• cites Kuusinen et al., 2018 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Rubien-Thomas et al., 2021 sourceNot checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Dorsomedial PFC supports social cognition, mental state inference, and social judgments as well as performance monitoring.

“in addition to performance monitoring, dorsomedial PFC is involved in social cognition, mental state inference, and social judgments (Eickhoff et al., 2016).”

• cites Eickhoff et al., 2016 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Rostral ACC has been linked to performance monitoring and emotional conflict regulation.

“The latter region has been implicated in performance monitoring (Di Pellegrino et al., 2007) and the regulation of emotional conflict (Etkin et al., 2015).”

• cites Di Pellegrino et al., 2007 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Etkin et al., 2015 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Early studies of EF unity and diversity found generally small correlations between abilities, similar to the current EF-MFTP correlation.

“In early studies on the unity and diversity of EFs, correlations between different abilities were generally small (Miyake et al., 2000), many falling in same range as that shown between EF and MFTP in the current study (r = .17).”

• cites Miyake et al., 2000 sourceNot checked yet

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