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Cited by 34Plasma Diagnostics and ApplicationsSensor Technology and Measurement SystemsScientific Measurement and Uncertainty Evaluation

A review on hot cathode ionisation gauges with focus on a suitable design for measurement accuracy and stability

Open access
Jousten, Karl, Boineau, Frederic, Bundaleski, Nenad, Illgen, Claus, Setina, Janez, Teodoro, Orlando M.N.D., Vicar, Martin, Wüest, Martin·2020·Vacuum
DOI 10.1016/j.vacuum.2020.109545
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Abstract

A literature review starting from 1950 is given on the design and geometry of ionisation gauge types with hot cathodes. Considerations on the material of the electrodes and of surface effects are included. The review focuses on the design issues for measurement accuracy, linearity, repeatability, reproducibility, and stability of sensitivity. Also, the attempts to reduce the lower measurement limit are reviewed to some extent.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review synthesizes more than 260 papers published from 1948 to 2017 on hot cathode ionisation gauge design, materials, surface effects, and stability, with emphasis on measurement accuracy and stable sensitivity. It concludes that few studies systematically optimized HCIG geometry for metrological stability and that the Bayard-Alpert design is unlikely to achieve the needed stability, favoring alternative designs such as those of Bills et al. and Klopfer.

Key findings

  • The review identifies five effects inhibiting metrological improvement of HCIGs, especially the BAG: unstable electron emission distribution from the cathode, secondary electrons from the collector, space charge effects, electron stimulated desorption from the anode, and X-rays from the anode. It states that these make it “rather improbable” that a BAG design can ever yield satisfying stability for metrological and scientific needs.
  • Historical design results include Redhead reducing the residual current in a BAG to an equivalent of 10⁻¹¹ mbar by reducing collector wire diameter to 25 μm; Schütze finding sensitivity dropped by almost 20% when grid wire thickness increased from 0.15 mm to 0.4 mm at d_g = 15 mm; and Groszkowski finding sensitivity decreased by about a factor of 10 when collector diameter changed from 2 mm to 9 μm.
  • Stability data cited include Sutton’s triode gauge with scatter of less than 1% within 850 h of operation; NIST long-term uncertainty (k = 1) between 1.9% for gauges at 4 mA and 2.8% at 0.1 mA; Yoshida et al. finding sensitivity of four gauges decreased by 2.6%–5.4% over 1 year; and an extractor/axial-symmetric transmission gauge showing long-term stability within 3% over 7 months but changes up to 13% over 3 years.
  • Jousten and Röhl found about 20% of emitted electrons do not enter the ionisation space, about 5% have trajectories that fluctuate between anode parts, and path length L changes by 10% can cause a sensitivity change of 0.6%. Klopfer’s straight-path design used a 1000 Gauss (0.1 T) magnetic field, a 15 mm path length, and achieved sensitivity of about 20 mbar⁻¹.

Methods

  • Literature review starting from 1950, based on a collection of more than 260 papers published from 1948 to 2017, undertaken within the EMPIR 16NRM05 project.
  • The review is structured by principal design and geometry, electrode materials, electrical supply, surface effects, sensitivity and stability, and numerical simulations; it focuses on HCIGs and excludes cold cathode gauges except for context.
  • Main analysis is a narrative synthesis and comparison of reported designs, sensitivities, stabilities, and physical effects, using the units of the original literature.

Limitations

  • Stated: very few publications exist dealing with optimization of HCIG geometry for metrological stability; historical development focused mainly on extending lower pressure limits from the 1960s to the 1990s; physical effects within gauges were no longer discussed in this century except by Peacock in 2002; most cited papers were published before 2000.
  • Stated: few systematic simulation studies exist for improving or designing gauges, with researchers mostly using trial and error; the review itself focuses on HCIG and does not cover cold cathode gauges in depth because of their nonlinearities.
  • Evident from the text: no formal systematic review protocol, search strategy, or quantitative meta-analysis is described; the conclusions are narrative and draw on heterogeneous older studies with different gauges, units, and operating conditions.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.vacuum.2020.109545

Cites

136 of 136 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 52 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingnone given

    Researchers in the academic or industrial field mostly used the trial and error method with devices.

    “Instead, researchers in the academic or industrial field mostly used the trial and error method with devices.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    Bayard and Alpert developed a new gauge type that significantly reduced the lower measurement limit of the triode type gauge.

    “Bayard and Alpert developed a new gauge type [4] which significantly reduced the lower measurement limit of the triode type gauge”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4] Bayard, 1950, Rev. Sci. Instrum. source
  • Premisecitation

    Schütze experimentally found that dependence of sensitivity on grid diameter was a bit weaker than linear as expected from simplified theory.

    “The experimental dependence of the sensitivity from the grid diameter was a bit weaker than linear as expected from a simplified theory.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Schütze, 1962, Über den Einfluß der Systemgeometrie und der Betriebsbedingungen auf die Gasionenkonstante von Ionisationsmanometerröhren nach Bayard-Alpert, Vakuum-Technik

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Premisecitation

    Schütze showed by theoretical considerations that sensitivity depends on the product of grid diameter dg and the ratio ρ of grid diameter to collector diameter.

    “By theoretical considerations he showed that the sensitivity depends on the product of grid diameter d g and the ratio ρ of grid diameter to collector diameter (Fig. 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Schütze, 1962, Über den Einfluß der Systemgeometrie und der Betriebsbedingungen auf die Gasionenkonstante von Ionisationsmanometerröhren nach Bayard-Alpert, Vakuum-Technik

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Premisenone given

    I+ is proportional to electron current Ie, mean effective path length L, ionisation cross section σE,gas, capture probability cion,C, and number density nV.

    “I þ is proportional to the electron current I e , the mean effective path length L of the electrons, the ionisation cross section of the molecules by the electrons σ E,gas , the capture probability c ion,C of the ions by the collector (Fig. 1) and finally the number density n V of molecules in the ionisation gauge.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 39
  • May combine two claims. 29

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    There were very few systematic investigations to use simulations to improve or design gauges.

    “It was also a surprise that there were very few systematic investigations to use simulations to improve or design gauges.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    The work of Watanabe based the improvement of the next generation gauge on the experience with the former generation.

    “A good example is the work of Watanabe who based the improvement of the next generation gauge on the experience with the former generation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The project pursues only HCIG because nonlinearities present in crossed field ionisation gauges make it complicated and expensive to calibrate them.

    “In the mentioned project we pursue only HCIG because of the nonlinearities present in crossed field ionisation gauges [5], which make it rather complicated and expensive to calibrate them.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5] Li, 2003, Comparison of the stability hot and cold cathode ionisation gauges, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Of Baker and Yarwood's two modifications, only closing the grid has some positive effect on stability because fewer ions are susceptible to loss by scattering, space charge, or change of emission point.

    “but only the first one has some positive effect on the stability, because less ions are susceptible to be lost by incidents due to scattering, space charge, change of emission point etc.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7] Baker, 1957, Die Erzeugung und Messung von Ultrahochvakuum Teil 1, Vakuum-Technik

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Redhead mentioned that measuring residual current by varying grid potential is unreliable because electron stimulated desorption and pumping speed of the gauge also change.

    “He mentioned, however, that this measurement is unreliable, because also the electron stimulated desorption changes as well as the pumping speed of the gauge.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [8] Redhead, 1961, Neue Ergebnisse in der Ultra-Hochvakuum-Technik, Vakuum-Technik

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The model equation (1) considers all the significant effects.

    “the model equation that considers all the significant effects is (see also Fig. 10)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Higher-order effects neglected in Eq. (1) are negligible.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Baker and Yarwood 1957 reported that closing the open cylindrical anode grid at both ends and adding a shield around the grid anode increases the number of electrons taking part in ionisation and cion,C, and both methods increase sensitivity.

    “A paper by Baker and Yarwood [7] in 1957 reported on an early modification of the BAG by closing the open cylindrical anode grid at the two ends and adding a shield around the grid anode.This shield has a negative potential compared to the cathode and increases the number of electrons that take part in the ionisation process (I e in Eq. ( 1)).The first modification increases c ion,C in Eq. (1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7] Baker, 1957, Die Erzeugung und Messung von Ultrahochvakuum Teil 1, Vakuum-Technik

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The ionisation gauge is the measuring instrument for high and ultrahigh vacuum, and besides the rarely applicable spinning rotor gauge the only vacuum gauge type for this pressure range.

    “The ionisation gauge [1] is the measuring instrument for high and ultrahigh vacuum, and besides the rarely applicable spinning rotor gauge the only vacuum gauge type for this pressure range.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1] ISO 27894:2009.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    In a HCIG, the measured quantity is the current of ions I+ produced by electron impact.

    “The measured quantity in a HCIG is the current of ions I þ produced by electron impact.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Redhead 1961 described reduction of residual current in the BAG to an equivalent of 10^-11 mbar by reducing the collector wire diameter to 25 μm.

    “In 1961 Redhead [8] described the reduction of the residual current in the BAG to an equivalent of 10 À 11 mbar by reducing the collector wire diameter to 25 μm.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [8] Redhead, 1961, Neue Ergebnisse in der Ultra-Hochvakuum-Technik, Vakuum-Technik

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Among the neglected higher order effects in Eq. (1) are electrons generated by X-rays on the wall and on the collector which may gain enough energy to ionize molecules.

    “Among the neglected quantities of higher order effects in the formula are those related to electrons which are generated by the X-rays on the wall and on the collector which may gain enough energy to also ionize molecules.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    When ρ > 100, sensitivity becomes independent of ρ and is proportional to dg.

    “When ρ > 100 (which is for a collector diameter of 100 μm happening at d g ¼ 10 mm), the sensitivity becomes independent of the ratio ρ and is therefore proportional to d g .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Schütze, 1962, Über den Einfluß der Systemgeometrie und der Betriebsbedingungen auf die Gasionenkonstante von Ionisationsmanometerröhren nach Bayard-Alpert, Vakuum-Technik

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Residual current Ir can be measured by varying the grid potential, with more X-rays generated at higher grid voltage.

    “I r can be measured by varying the grid potential: The idea is that more X-rays are generated with higher grid voltage.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Bills et al. stated that the main cause of inaccurate and unstable sensitivities in BAG is the unstable and nonreproducible distribution of electron emission from hot cathodes.

    “Bills et al. [23] stated in 1984 that the main cause of inaccurate and unstable sensitivities in BAG is the unstable and nonreproducible distribution of electron emission from hot cathodes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [23] Bills, 1984, New ionisation gauge geometries providing stable and reproducible sensitivities, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Inclusion of space charge effects and secondary electrons from the gas phase and/or surfaces greatly improves the significance of the simulation.

    “Inclusion of space charge effects and secondary electrons from gas phase and/or surfaces greatly improve the significance of the simulation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    A changing electron emission distribution from the cathode causes different electron paths and lengths and a changing sensitivity.

    “A changing distribution causes different electron paths and lengths and a changing sensitivity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Mo, W and Pt-Ir show similar behaviour in terms of electron stimulated desorption, whilst Pt-clad Mo seems to have better properties and should be preferable as the grid material.

    “Mo, W and Pt-Ir show similar behaviour in terms of ESD, whilst Pt-clad Mo seems to have better properties and should be preferable as the grid material.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [121] Redhead, 1970, Ion desorption by electron bombardment; relation to total and partial pressure measurement, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Backscattered and high energy secondary electrons from the grid have enough energy to ionize gas atoms.

    “The backscattered and high energy secondary electrons will have enough energy to ionize the gas atoms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Benvenuti found influence of collector diameter is weaker when the anode grid is closed.

    “Benvenuti [18] found that the influence of d c is weaker, when the anode grid is closed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] Benvenuti, 1977, Low pressure limit of the bayard-alpert gauge, Nucl. Instrum. Methods source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The space charge depends on the type of ions and the number of secondary electrons and is usually not stable.

    “The space charge depends on the type of ions and the number of secondary electrons and is usually not stable.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    A highly accurate ionisation gauge will need an accurate emission current control and accurate ion current measurement over many decades.

    “It is also clear that a highly accurate ionisation gauge will need an accurate emission current control and accurate ion current measurement over many decades.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Positive space charge around the collector, particularly at higher pressure, perturbs the field distribution and affects ion and electron trajectories.

    “Positive space charge around the collector, in particular at higher pressure, perturbs the field distribution and affect ion and electron trajectories.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    For the same reason, sensitivity increases strongly with increasing wire lead from 1 mm to 2 mm, but for a wire thickness and dg=15 mm reaches a weak maximum at 3 mm, after which sensitivity drops slightly.

    “For the same reason the sensitivity increases strongly with increasing wire lead from 1 mm to 2 mm, but for a wire thickness and d g ¼ 15 mm reaches a weak maximum at 3 mm, where after the sensitivity drops slightly.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Schütze, 1962, Über den Einfluß der Systemgeometrie und der Betriebsbedingungen auf die Gasionenkonstante von Ionisationsmanometerröhren nach Bayard-Alpert, Vakuum-Technik

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    According to Hagstrum theory, an increase in work function reduces ion induced secondary electron yield, which explains a reduction in sensitivity.

    “According to the Hagstrum theory, work function increase reduces IISEY (cf.eq. ( 4)), which explains reduction of the sensitivity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [98] Hagstrum, 1954, Theory of auger ejection of electrons from metals by ions, Phys. Rev. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The number of desorbed ions and molecules from the anode changes with time due to the changing surface.

    “The number of desorbed ions and molecules changes with time due to the changing surface”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Groszkowski found a weak increase of 20% in sensitivity when cathode-anode distance was varied from 1 mm to 15 mm, different from Schütze and in contradiction of Redhead.

    “For the cathodeanode distance Groszkowski found a weak increase of 20% in sensitivity, when this distance was varied from 1 mm to 15 mm, which is somewhat different from the results of Schütze (he used a longitudinal wire, not hairpin as cathode) described above and in contradiction of a finding by Redhead [21], see below.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [21] Redhead, 1969, The sensitivity of bayard—alpert gauges, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In a modified design, Bills et al. proposed an exit slit for the electrons on the opposite side of the ribbon so that electrons hit the outer part of the grid, preventing X-rays from reaching the ion collector directly.

    “In a modified design the authors proposed an exit slit for the electrons on the opposite side of the ribbon so that the electrons hit the outer part of the grid.In this way, the X-rays could not reach the ion collector directly.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [23] Bills, 1984, New ionisation gauge geometries providing stable and reproducible sensitivities, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The approaches of Bills et al. [23] and Klopfer [29] offer both the possibility of a well-defined electron path and the possibility to separate at least some of the surface effects from volume effects.

    “These designs offer both the possibility of a well-defined electron path and the possibility to separate at least some of the surface effects from volume effects.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [23] Bills, 1984, New ionisation gauge geometries providing stable and reproducible sensitivities, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A source
    • cites [29] Klopfer, 1962, An ionisation gauge for measurement of Ultra-high vacua

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: The Bills and Klopfer designs can be adapted into a practical ionisation gauge with better metrological stability.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Warming by the hot cathode causes additional desorption and outgassing of the electrodes.

    “The warming by the hot cathode causes additional desorption and outgassing of the electrodes”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    It is impractical for regular use to measure the electron current and use the calibrated sensitivity to determine pressure.

    “Emission control is preferred, because it is impractical for regular use to measure the electron current and use the calibrated sensitivity to determine pressure.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Bills stated that the cause of sensitivity reduction at higher pressure is due to the ion space charge around the collector.

    “Bills also stated that the cause of sensitivity reduction at higher pressure is due to the ion space charge around the collector.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [24] Bills, 1994, Causes of nonstability and nonreproducibility in widely used Bayard-Alpert ionisation gauges, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sensitivity is about linearly proportional to grid diameter dg, hence also L.

    “The sensitivity is about linearly proportional to the grid diameter d g , hence also L.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The electrons generated by X-rays within the gauge cannot be controlled and will change the measured ion current in numerous ways.

    “which cannot be controlled and will change the measured ion current in numerous ways.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Collector position was favourable in the centre of the grid, but no loss of sensitivity was observed when the collector was moved perpendicular to the plane spanned by the grid axis and the cathode.

    “The position of the collector was favourable in the centre of the grid, but no loss of sensitivity was observed when the collector was moved perpendicular to the plane spanned by the grid axis and the cathode.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Schütze, 1962, Über den Einfluß der Systemgeometrie und der Betriebsbedingungen auf die Gasionenkonstante von Ionisationsmanometerröhren nach Bayard-Alpert, Vakuum-Technik

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Changing cathode temperatures and potentials, work function, and ion bombardment cause changing electron emission distribution.

    “Changing emission distribution is caused by changing cathode temperatures and potentials, work function, and ion bombardment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The secondary electron yield on the collector depends on its surface, which changes with time.

    “The secondary electron yield on the collector will depend on its surface which is changing with time.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Comsa explained that Groszkowski worked with residual gases containing diatomic molecules; ionized molecules give ions with energies up to 1 eV and higher, and higher angular momentum leads to lower capture probability.

    “Comsa explained this fact that Groszkowski worked with residual gases, which contain an important number of diatomic molecules.These molecules, being ionized, give birth to ions which have velocities corresponding not only to the thermal energy (0.026 eV), but also to energies up to 1 eV and higher.Higher energies (higher angular momentum) lead to lower capture probability by the collector.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [17] Comsa, 1966, Ion collection in the bayard-alpert gauge, J. Appl. Phys. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Closed grids prevent generated ions from escaping the ionisation volume and therefore increase sensitivity up to a factor of 4, depending on collector diameter.

    “Closed grids prevent generated ions to escape from the ionisation volume and therefore increase sensitivity up to a factor of 4, depending on the collector diameter [11,17,20].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [11] Groszkowski, 1965, Bull. Acad. Polon. Sci

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [17] Comsa, 1966, Ion collection in the bayard-alpert gauge, J. Appl. Phys. source
    • cites [20] Peacock, 1990, Sensitivity variation of Bayard-Alpert gauges with and without closed grids from 10-4 to 1 Pa, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bills et al. designed a BAG with a semi-circular ribbon cathode in front of a slit of a slightly deformed hemispherical anode grid; all electrons take the same type of path and length and have almost the same energy so that changes of emission will not affect sensitivity.

    “To meet these requirements Bills et al. [23] designed an interesting BAG shown in Fig. 3.A semi-circular ribbon as cathode is positioned in front of a slit of slightly deformed hemispherical anode grid.All electrons emitted from this ribbon take the same type of path and therefore length and have almost the same energy so that any changes of emission will not affect the sensitivity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [23] Bills, 1984, New ionisation gauge geometries providing stable and reproducible sensitivities, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Groszkowski estimated the number of oscillations of electrons as 2 to 4, with higher number for smaller grid wire diameters.

    “Groszkowski also estimated the number of oscillations of the electrons and found 2 to 4 oscillations, where the higher number is true for smaller grid wire diameters [16].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16] J. Groszkowski, Electrode dimensions of the Bayard-Alpert ionisation gauge and its sensitivity, Unknown J., 241–244.. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The total pumping speed of an ionisation gauge is composed of electronic and chemical pumping speed.

    “According to Redhead [58], the total pumping speed of an ionisation gauge is composed of two components: electronic and chemical pumping speed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [58] Redhead, 1960, Errors in the measurement of pressure with ionisation gauges

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bills investigated causes of instabilities of ion collector current in glass tube BAGs by simulations using SIMION; he did not publish quantitative results but showed examples of electron trajectories.

    “Ten years later, Bills [24] investigated the causes of instabilities of ion collector current in glass tube BAGs by means of simulations using the software SIMION.He did not publish quantitative results but showed examples of electron trajectories.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [24] Bills, 1994, Causes of nonstability and nonreproducibility in widely used Bayard-Alpert ionisation gauges, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Geometrical variation and instability of the cathode is included in most of today's commercial gauges.

    “Included here is the geometrical variation and instability of the cathode in most of today's commercial gauges.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Hseuh reported a reduction of 30% when collector diameter was reduced from 125 μm to 50 μm.

    “Hseuh [19] reported a reduction of 30%, when the diameter was reduced from 125 μm to 50 μm.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [19] Hseuh, 1987, A thin collector Bayard-Alpert gauge for 10-12 Torr vacuum, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    X-ray photons may hit the collector and produce secondary electrons that are measured as collector current.

    “X-ray photons may hit the collector and produce secondary electrons which will then be measured as the collector current.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The coefficient of X-ray emission induced by electrons is strongly dependent on atomic number, and it would be favourable to work with low atomic number materials.

    “The coefficient of X-ray emission induced by electrons is strongly Z-dependent (Z: atomic number) and it would be favourable to work with low Z materials.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    This design idea never made it into a series product due to materials of construction and sputtering effects reducing lifetime.

    “This design idea never made it into a series product due to materials of construction and sputtering effects reducing lifetime as the authors of this review learned from co-author Arnold in an email exchange.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    It is important to have a symmetrical arrangement of the cathode wire to the grid.

    “He noticed that it is important to have a symmetrical arrangement of the cathode wire to the grid.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Schütze, 1962, Über den Einfluß der Systemgeometrie und der Betriebsbedingungen auf die Gasionenkonstante von Ionisationsmanometerröhren nach Bayard-Alpert, Vakuum-Technik

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Schütze found a 20% increase of sensitivity from 1 mm to 4 mm cathode-anode distance, where there was a maximum, and a slight decrease up to 10 mm.

    “For the latter he found a 20% increase of sensitivity from 1 mm to 4 mm distance, where there was a maximum, and a slight decrease in sensitivity up to 10 mm distance (Fig. 11 b in Refs.[9]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Schütze, 1962, Über den Einfluß der Systemgeometrie und der Betriebsbedingungen auf die Gasionenkonstante von Ionisationsmanometerröhren nach Bayard-Alpert, Vakuum-Technik

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    There was a monotonic decrease of sensitivity with wire thickness; for dg=15 mm it dropped by almost 20% from wire thickness 0.15 mm to 0.4 mm.

    “There was a monotonic decrease of the sensitivity with the wire thickness.For d g ¼ 15 mm, it dropped by almost 20% from a wire thickness of 0.15 mm to the one of 0.4 mm.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Schütze, 1962, Über den Einfluß der Systemgeometrie und der Betriebsbedingungen auf die Gasionenkonstante von Ionisationsmanometerröhren nach Bayard-Alpert, Vakuum-Technik

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The Klopfer design opens the possibility for a better mechanical stability than with present HCIG, which is important for metrological stability.

    “We also think that the Klopfer design opens the possibility for a better mechanical stability than with present HCIG which is important for metrological stability.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [29] Klopfer, 1962, An ionisation gauge for measurement of Ultra-high vacua

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bills et al. defined four requirements for a stable BAG design: all emitted electrons must enter the ionisation space; path length and energy of each electron must be independent of the point of origin on the cathode; the number of transits through the ionisation space must be constant (preferably 1); and the ion collection efficiency must be independent of the point of origin on the cathode.

    “To this end, they defined 4 requirements for a design of a stable BAG: a.All emitted electrons must enter the ionisation space b.Path length L (Eq. ( 1)) and energy of each electron must be independent of the point of origin on the cathode c.The number of transits through the ionisation space must be constant (preferably 1) d.The ion collection efficiency must be independent of the point of origin”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [23] Bills, 1984, New ionisation gauge geometries providing stable and reproducible sensitivities, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Electron stimulated desorption of ions and molecules from the anode can make a significant contribution to the ion current compared to gas phase ions.

    “can make a significant contribution to the ion current compared to gas phase ions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The ion induced secondary electron yield and its change depend much on the chosen material and its surface composition.

    “This yield and its change depend much on the chosen material and on its surface composition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sensitivity increased with the length of the collector wire, with the larger effect for bigger diameters.

    “The sensitivity also increased with the length of the collector wire, with the larger effect for bigger diameters [16].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16] J. Groszkowski, Electrode dimensions of the Bayard-Alpert ionisation gauge and its sensitivity, Unknown J., 241–244.. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The employment of simulations, as is being done by our consortium, can lead to a significant step of an improved gauge design.

    “It can be concluded that the employment of simulations, as is being done by our consortium, can lead to a significant step of an improved gauge design.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
56 of 56

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Commercial gauges normally do not achieve the high measurement accuracy and long-term stability required by vacuum calibration laboratories.

    “However, vacuum calibration laboratories including National Metrological Institutes and laboratories, which measure pumping speeds of high vacuum pumps, require ionisation gauges that offer a high measurement accuracy and long-term stability which is normally not achieved by commercial gauges.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A standardized ionisation gauge suitable for calibration purposes with a stable relative gas sensitivity factor in the range from 10^-6 Pa to 10^-2 Pa is needed.

    “In addition, the ISO Technical Committee 112 for Vacuum Technology requested research for a standardized ionisation gauge suitable for calibration purposes with some emphasis on a stable relative gas sensitivity factor in the range from 10 À 6 Pa to 10 À 2 Pa.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Higher-order effects neglected in Eq. (1) are negligible.

    “Among the neglected quantities of higher order effects in the formula are those related to electrons which are generated by the X-rays on the wall and on the collector which may gain enough energy to also ionize molecules.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The instability effects described in the publications are inherent to all BAG designs and cannot be sufficiently mitigated by design improvements.

    “The effects described in the publications make it rather improbable that a BAG design can ever lead to a vacuum gauge with satisfying stability for metrological and scientific needs.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Bills and Klopfer designs can be adapted into a practical ionisation gauge with better metrological stability.

    “For this reason, for the purpose of a more metrologically stable ionisation gauge, we will pursue a design which is different from today's commercial HCIGs, mainly BAGs.”
5 of 5

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Conclusion overlooks a later paper on effects within gauges

    Minor

    The conclusion says that, apart from Peacock's 2002 paper, papers discussing physical effects within gauges were published before 2000. Earlier, the review describes Silva et al.'s 2019 study of electron paths, ion collection and backscattered electrons in a gauge.

  • Stated literature period excludes a cited 2019 paper

    Minor

    The stated collection runs through 2017, but the review discusses Silva et al. and lists that paper as published in 2019.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 31

  1. Von Baeyer, 1909, Phys. Z., 10, 169
  2. Baker, 1957, Die Erzeugung und Messung von Ultrahochvakuum Teil 1, Vakuum-Technik, 6, 147
  3. Redhead, 1961, Neue Ergebnisse in der Ultra-Hochvakuum-Technik, Vakuum-Technik, 10, 31
  4. Schütze, 1962, Über den Einfluß der Systemgeometrie und der Betriebsbedingungen auf die Gasionenkonstante von Ionisationsmanometerröhren nach Bayard-Alpert, Vakuum-Technik, 11, 133
  5. Groszkowski, 1965, Collector dimensions and sensitivity in Bayard-Alpert ionisation gauge, Bull. Acad. Polon. Sci, 13, 15
  6. Groszkowski, 1965, Bull. Acad. Polon. Sci, 13, 3
  7. Groszkowski, 1965, Bayard-Alpert ionisation gauge sensitivity vs. Collector position in anode cross section, Bull. Acad. Polon. Sci, 13, 57
  8. Groszkowski, 1965, Bull. Acad. Polon. Sci, 13, 261
  9. Groszkowski, 1965, Bull. Acad. Polon. Sci, 13, 397
  10. Groszkowski, 1966, Bull. Acad. Polon. Sci, 14, 1023
  11. Nottingham, 1961, Trans. AVS Vac. Symp., 8, 494
  12. Pittaway, 1974, The application of ion storage in electron space-charge fields to the design of a U.H.V. gauge and mass-spectrometer ion source Part II. The construction and performance of the extractor gauge, Philips Res. Rep., 29, 283
  13. Alpert, 1962, Le Vide, 17, 19
  14. Gasperic, 1967, Die Regenerierung verunreinigter Wolfram-Kathoden von Ionisationsvakuummeter-Röhren, Vakuum-Technik 16, Jhrg. Heft, 5, 109
  15. Edelmann, 1975, Zum Einfluß der Glühkatode auf den unteren Grenzdruck bei Bayard-Alpert Ionisationsvakuummetern, Exp. Techn. D. Phys., XXIII, 525
  16. Völter, 1967, Bayard-Alpert-Manometer mit LaB6-Kathode und kleiner Emission, Vakuum-Technik 16, Jhrg. Heft, 1/2, 17
  17. Peters, 1969, Entwicklung und Betriebsverhalten einer neuen Ionisationsmanometer-Röhre, Vakuum-Technik 5, Jhrg. H., 4, 65
  18. Van Oostrom, 1961, Trans. AVS Vac. Symp., 8443
  19. Hirata, 1982, Calibration of secondary standard ionisation gauges, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., 20, 1159, 10.1116/1.571508 · DOI
  20. Harten, 1986, Einfluß der Sekundärelektronenemission auf die Meßunsicherheit von Ionisationsvakuummetern, Wissenschaftliche Kurzberichte der Abteilung, 9, 196
  21. Palme, 1952, Wolfram und Molybdän in der Vakuumtechnik, Glas- und Hochvakuum-Technik, 7, 134
  22. Edelmann, 1975, The influence of the hot cathode on the lower pressure limit of the bayard-alpert gauge, Exp. Tech. Phys., XXIII, 525
  23. Gentsch, 1980, Ionisation gauge as an inert system, Proc. 8th Int Vacuum Congress, Cannes, 2, 203
  24. Watanabe, 1987, Point collector ionisation gauge with spherical grid for measuring pressures below 10-11 Pa, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, 5, 242, 10.1116/1.574112 · DOI
  25. Benvenuti, 1977, Low pressure limit of the bayard-alpert gauge, Nucl. Instrum. Methods, 140, 453, 10.1016/0029-554x(77)90360-3 · DOI · Paper page
  26. Watanabe, 1992, Ion spectroscopy gauge: total pressure measurements down to 10-12 Pa with discrimination against electron-stimulated-desorption ions, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, 10, 3333, 10.1116/1.577821 · DOI
  27. Lakits, 1990, Threshold for ion-induced kinetic electron emission from a clean metal surface, Phys Rev A, 49, 5780, 10.1103/physreva.42.5780 · DOI
  28. Becker, 1980, Sensitivity dependence on collector surface properties in ion gauges, Proc. 8th Int. Vacuum Congress, Cannes, II, 234
  29. Grosse, 1987, Secondary electrons in ion gauges, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, 5, 3242, 10.1116/1.574846 · DOI · Paper page
  30. van Oostrom, 1967, Totaldruckmessung nach dem Ionisationsprinzip und ihre Störeffekte, Vakuum-Technik, 16, 159
  31. Sauter, 2008, Entwicklung einer Monte-Carlo Simulation zum Verständnis des ASDEX pressure gauge, Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik, IPP –Report, IPP, 10/37

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Jousten, K., Boineau, F., Bundaleski, N., Illgen, C., Setina, J., Teodoro, O. M. N. D., Vicar, M., & Wüest, M.
Affiliations
  • Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (DE)
  • Universidade Nova de Lisboa (PT)
Corresponding author
Jousten, Karl
ORCID
Venue
Vacuum
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2020-09
Volume
179
Pages
109545
ISSN
0042-207X (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.vacuum.2020.109545
OpenAlex
W3035704902
Semantic Scholar
1bd5535482021d14b8f81366a179f1f692ba0c8d
Cited by
34
References
136
Citations by year
2026: 7 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 1
FWCI
1.52
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Vacuum (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Funders
European Association of National Metrology Institutes
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Plasma Diagnostics and Applications
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Networks and Communications › Sensor Technology and Measurement Systems
  • Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Scientific Measurement and Uncertainty Evaluation
Keywords
electrode materials, surface effects, measurement accuracy, linearity, repeatability, reproducibility, vacuum pressure measurement

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-11-06.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-11-06.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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