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Microplastics in freshwater systems: A review of the emerging threats, identification of knowledge gaps and prioritisation of research needs
Abstract
Plastic contamination is an increasing environmental problem in marine systems where it has spread globally to even the most remote habitats. Plastic pieces in smaller size scales, microplastics (particles <5 mm), have reached high densities (e.g., 100,000 items per m(3)) in waters and sediments, and are interacting with organisms and the environment in a variety of ways. Early investigations of freshwater systems suggest microplastic presence and interactions are equally as far reaching as are being observed in marine systems. Microplastics are being detected in freshwaters of Europe, North America, and Asia, and the first organismal studies are finding that freshwater fauna across a range of feeding guilds ingest microplastics. Drawing from the marine literature and these initial freshwater studies, we review the issue of microplastics in freshwater systems to summarise current understanding, identify knowledge gaps and suggest future research priorities. Evidence suggests that freshwater systems may share similarities to marine systems in the types of forces that transport microplastics (e.g. surface currents); the prevalence of microplastics (e.g. numerically abundant and ubiquitous); the approaches used for detection, identification and quantification (e.g. density separation, filtration, sieving and infrared spectroscopy); and the potential impacts (e.g. physical damage to organisms that ingest them, chemical transfer of toxicants). Differences between freshwater and marine systems include the closer proximity to point sources in freshwaters, the typically smaller sizes of freshwater systems, and spatial and temporal differences in the mixing/transport of particles by physical forces. These differences between marine and freshwater systems may lead to differences in the type of microplastics present. For example, rivers may show a predictable pattern in microplastic characteristics (size, shape, relative abundance) based on waste sources (e.g. household vs. industrial) adjacent to the river, and distance downstream from a point source. Given that the study of microplastics in freshwaters has only arisen in the last few years, we are still limited in our understanding of 1) their presence and distribution in the environment; 2) their transport pathways and factors that affect distributions; 3) methods for their accurate detection and quantification; 4) the extent and relevance of their impacts on aquatic life. We also do not know how microplastics might transfer from freshwater to terrestrial ecosystems, and we do not know if and how they may affect human health. This is concerning because human populations have a high dependency on freshwaters for drinking water and for food resources. Increasing the level of understanding in these areas is essential if we are to develop appropriate policy and management tools to address this emerging issue.
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“Understanding the interaction between microplastics and biota in freshwater systems has been identified as a high priority research need4 and there is a general agreement on the idea that an effect assessment should be performed to evaluate the risk of exposure to microplastics.9”
From Microplastic Effect Thresholds for Freshwater Benthic Macroinvertebrates (2018) · cites this paper as [4]
In the citing paper
“Field measured concentrations in freshwater sediments2−4,7,8 although often provisional due to methodological limitations, are far below the calculated EC10 or EC50 effect threshold values for G. pulex.”
From Microplastic Effect Thresholds for Freshwater Benthic Macroinvertebrates (2018) · cites this paper as [4]
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Flagged first, then by citations
3 of the 131 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Colton, 1974, Plastics in the ocean, Oceanus, 18, 61
Cited by
Sorted by citations
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Metadata
- Authors
- Eerkes-Medrano, D., Thompson, R. C., & Aldridge, D. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Plymouth (GB)
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Venue
- Water Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-05
- Volume
- 75
- Pages
- 63-82
- ISSN
- 0043-1354 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1971345082
- Cited by
- 2,638
- References
- 131
- Citations by year
- 2026: 144 · 2025: 264 · 2024: 328 · 2023: 294 · 2022: 389 · 2021: 342 · 2020: 335 · 2019: 215 · 2018: 157 · 2017: 99 · 2016: 54 · 2015: 15
- FWCI
- 8.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Water Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Microplastics and Plastic Pollution
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Environmental Toxicology and Ecotoxicology
- Keywords
- microplastics, freshwater ecosystems, plastic pollution, microplastic transport pathways, human health risk, point source pollution, rivers, knowledge gaps, research priorities, plastic waste sources, microplastic size and shape
- MeSH terms
- Environmental Monitoring, Fresh Water, Plastics, Water Pollutants, Chemical
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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