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Variation in oxytocin is related to variation in affiliative behavior in monogamous, pairbonded tamarins
Open accessAbstract
Oxytocin plays an important role in monogamous pairbonded female voles, but not in polygamous voles. Here we examined a socially-monogamous cooperatively breeding primate where both sexes share in parental care and territory defense for within species variation in behavior and female and male oxytocin levels in 14 pairs of cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus), In order to obtain a stable chronic assessment of hormones and behavior, we observed behavior and collected urinary hormonal samples across the tamarins’ three week ovulatory cycle. We found similar levels of urinary oxytocin in both sexes. However, basal urinary oxytocin levels varied ten-fold across pairs and pair-mates displayed similar oxytocin levels. Affiliative behavior (contact, grooming, sex) also varied greatly across the sample and explained more than half the variance in pair oxytocin levels. The variables accounting for variation in oxytocin levels differed by sex. Mutual contact and grooming explained most of the variance in female oxytocin levels whereas sexual behavior explained most of the variance in male oxytocin levels. The initiation of contact by males and solicitation of sex by females were related to increased levels of oxytocin in both. This study demonstrates within-species variation in oxytocin that is directly related to levels of affiliative and sexual behavior. However, different behavioral mechanisms influence oxytocin levels in males and females and a strong pair relationship (as indexed by high levels of oxytocin) may require the activation of appropriate mechanisms for both sexes.
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TL;DR
In 14 pairs of cotton-top tamarins, urinary oxytocin varied ten-fold across individuals but did not differ by sex, and pair mates had correlated oxytocin levels. Affiliative and sexual behavior explained substantial variance in oxytocin, with different behavioral predictors for females and males.
Key findings
- No sex difference in mean urinary oxytocin: females 23.69 ± 5.25 vs males 16.26 ± 3.56 pg/mg Cr, t(26)=1.17, P=0.25; within pairs, male and female oxytocin levels were significantly correlated (RS=0.714, N=14, P=0.02).
- Oxytocin varied ten-fold across individuals: females ranged 4.5 to 46.4 pg/mg Cr and males ranged 3.89 to 39.92 ng/mg Cr, as reported. Pair oxytocin correlated with affiliative behavior (RS=0.783, N=14, P<0.01), and remained significant when sexual behavior was excluded (RS=0.72, N=14, P<0.02).
- Stepwise regressions: mean pair oxytocin was predicted by total sexual behavior plus affiliative frequency (F(2,11)=9.54, P=0.004, adjusted r²=0.57); female oxytocin by affiliation duration and frequency (F(3,10)=3.937, P=0.04, adjusted r²=0.40); male oxytocin by sexual behavior only (F(1,12)=7.46, P=0.02, adjusted r²=0.33).
- Individual behaviors explained more pair oxytocin variance: male sexual behavior, male huddle initiation, and female solicitation (F(3,10)=21.54, P=.001, adjusted r²=0.83).
Methods
- Subjects were 14 male-female cotton-top tamarin pairs housed together for more than one year; one animal per pair was sterilized for colony management but all had intact gonads, and no offspring were present.
- Behavior was observed in 30-min sessions three times weekly, and first-morning urine samples were collected three times weekly across the female’s three-week ovarian cycle; hormonal and behavioral measures were averaged to assess chronic/basal levels.
- Urinary oxytocin was measured by enzyme immunoassay, creatinine-corrected, with biological validation via estradiol implants and pairing; analyses used Spearman rank correlations, t-tests, and stepwise multiple regressions.
Limitations
- The paper states that the data represent chronic/baseline hormone and behavior levels, and that it is unknown whether or how quickly oxytocin levels change in response to sexual behavior or female fertility.
- Evident from the text: the study is correlational with a small sample of 14 captive pairs, so causal direction between oxytocin and behavior cannot be established; urinary oxytocin is used as a peripheral proxy for biobehavioral oxytocin function.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found similar levels of urinary oxytocin in both sexes.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Male and female oxytocin levels did not differ across the sample (Mean ± SEM: Female 23.69 ± 5.25, Male 16.26 ± 3.56 pg/mg Cr, t (26) = 1.17, P = 0.25).”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“we found no sex differences in oxytocin levels.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Abstract
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The model that explained the greatest variance in mean pair oxytocin levels included both total sexual behavior and frequency of affiliative behavior (F (2, 11) = 9.54, P = 0.004, adjusted r square = 0.57”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“Our multiple regression analyses identified two pair behavioral components (sexual behavior and frequency of affiliative contact) that explained 60% of the variance in the mean oxytocin levels within pairs.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Results
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Pair oxytocin levels correlated significantly with affiliative behavior (RS = 0.783, N = 14, P < 0.01; Figure 3).”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The model that explained the greatest variance included male huddle initiation and female solicitation (F (2, 11) = 8.53, P =0.006, adjusted r square = 0.54”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“Male initiation of huddles with females and female solicitation of sex were both important variables in explaining variation in both pair and female oxytocin levels.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Results
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Affiliative behavior (contact, grooming, sex) also varied greatly across the sample”
- Also stated in: § Results · boosted
“The striking within-species variation also appeared for the behavioral measures with sexual behavior ranging from 1.5 to 6.9 acts per 30 min, huddling and grooming duration ranging from 14.6 to 556.8 sec per 30 min and huddling and grooming frequency ranging from 1.9 to 18.2 acts per 30 min.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Results · boosted
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One significant model (male erections) explained variance in male oxytocin levels (F (1, 12) = 10.69, P = 0.006, adjusted r-square= 0.43, beta for erection = 0.69, t = 3.31, P = 0.006).”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“male erections explained 43% of the variance.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When predictors of male oxytocin levels were tested, the significant model included sexual behavior as the only significant variable (F (1, 12) = 7.46, P = 0.02, adjusted r square = 0.33; beta coefficient for sexual behavior = 0.62, t = 2.731, P = 0.02).”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For predictors of variance in female oxytocin levels the model excluded sex but included both affiliation duration and affiliation frequency (F (3, 10) = 3.937, P = 0.04 adjusted r square = 0.40).”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“For females the best model excluded sexual behavior but showed that 40% of the variance in female oxytocin could be explained by the frequency and duration of contact behavior and grooming.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When sexual behavior was removed as a variable using only the rank order based on huddling and grooming frequency and duration the correlation with pair oxytocin rank was still highly significant (RS = 0.72, N = 14, P < 0.02).”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“pair-mates displayed similar oxytocin levels”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“a significant Spearman rank order correlation between mates (RS =0.714, N = 14, P = 0.02)”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“We also found a significant correlation between oxytocin levels in both males and females within tamarin pairs”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“basal urinary oxytocin levels varied ten-fold across pairs”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“There was marked variation between individuals within each sex in mean basal oxytocin levels with a ten-fold range of values for both females (4.5 to 46.4 pg/mg Cr) and males (3.89 to 39.92 ng/mg Cr).”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“An unexpected result was the ten-fold variation in oxytocin levels across individuals.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The model that explained the most variance included male sexual behavior, male huddle initiation and female solicitation (F (3, 10) = 21.54, P = .001, adjusted r square = 0.83”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“three individual behaviors, male sex, male initiation of huddling and female solicitation, explained nearly 83% of the variance in pair oxytocin levels”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We also found a significant correlation between oxytocin levels in both males and females within tamarin pairs that suggests that complementary behavioral interactions may be responsible for the shared oxytocin levels.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that nonconceptive sex may be important in restoring or maintaining a relationship.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesWhat the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Estradiol increased significantly in all three males (t=3.64, P=0.04) ensuring the effectiveness of the pellets in raising estradiol.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Methods > Hormonal Assays
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The extensive within species co-variation in affiliation, sexual activity and oxytocin levels in tamarins suggests that among pair-bonded primates there can be considerable within species variation.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesWhat the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found a significant increase in oxytocin after pairing (23 ± 26.3 pg/mg Cr alone, 100 ± 2.7 pg/mg Cr after pairing, p <0.003), as would be expected based on known patterns of oxytocin release.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Methods > Hormonal Assays
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The variables accounting for variation in oxytocin levels differed by sex.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“different behavioral mechanisms influence oxytocin levels in males and females”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
“our data suggest that oxytocin levels are stimulated by different behavioral variables for each sex.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Male oxytocin response varied substantially, but two of the three males showed a large increase in oxytocin following the estradiol elevation (mean pre OT = 17 ± 5 pg/mg Cr, mean post OT = 100 ± 15 pg/mg Cr) (Figure 1).”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Methods > Hormonal Assays
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesWhat the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our goal was to provide an assessment of chronic (or basal) levels of both oxytocin and behavior rather than to detect acute responses to individual events.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“It is important to emphasize that the data presented here represent chronic (or baseline) levels of hormones and behavior.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Methods > Data Analyses
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
In the paper
“Wang et al. (1997) studied the distribution of oxytocin imunnoreactive neurons and fibers in common marmosets, a closely related species, and found no sex differences in the distribution of oxytocin immunoreactive cells.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wang et al. (1997) source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
- Probably not a substantial claim. 9
- It may state two separate claims as one. 10
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We measured cortisol levels according to the methods of Ziegler et al. (1995), but found no significant relationships between cortisol and oxytocin or cortisol and behavior and do not discuss this further.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Methods > Hormonal Assays
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Mean intra-assay coefficients of variation were 5.85% and inter-assay coefficients of variation were 16.11%.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Methods > Hormonal Assays
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“We have reported (Snowdon and Ziegler, 2007) that rates of nonconceptive sex and female solicitation increase after minor threats to the relationship (brief separations, and olfactory stimuli from novel reproductive females) suggesting that nonconceptive sex may be important in restoring or maintaining a relationship.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Snowdon and Ziegler, 2007
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We suggest that the amount and quality of close contact and non-conceptive sex may also play an important role in predicting the quality and duration of human heterosexual relationships.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Discussion
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All observers were trained to a criterion of >85% reliability prior to observations.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Methods > Data collection
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“A direct enzyme immunoassay (EIA) (Assay Designs, Ann Arbor, MI) has been shown to have greater specificity than the earlier RIA, responding only to the fraction eluded at the location of oxytocin (Carter et al., 2007). EIA reactivity with arginine vasopressin was less than 0.3%.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Methods > Hormonal Assays
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Carter et al., 2007 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In contrast to previous research on rodents (polygynous rats and monogamous prairie voles) where sexually-naïve females had increased levels of oxytocin compared to sexually-naïve males (Kramer et al., 2004) we found no sex differences in oxytocin levels.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kramer et al., 2004 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results based on pair behaviors suggest males and females have complementary behavioral strategies with female oxytocin levels being influenced by amount of proximity and contact they receive whereas male levels are affected by amount of sexual activity.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The natural establishment of pairbonds in prairie voles is usually accompanied by extensive sexual behavior over one to two days (Carter 1998) which also induces ovulation in females.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Carter 1998 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Serial diluted pooled tamarin urine was parallel to oxytocin standards (t = 1.21, P >0.05) and accuracy was 101.9 + 4.7% (mean +SEM).”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Methods > Hormonal Assays
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results suggest that these behaviors may have a tonic effect on oxytocin levels, and that peripheral oxytocin levels reflect the quality of a pair relationship.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A good relationship between pair mates may be one where each sex can respond to the behavioral needs of its mate.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Discussion
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The demonstration that both sexes of tamarins have equal levels of oxytocin within a pair, but that these levels are influenced by different behaviors for each sex and that each sex engages in behavior that complements the needs of the mate suggest ways in which human relationships might be improved.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our results suggest that variation in affiliative and sexual behavior may have a significant effect on hormones or vice versa.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All concentrations were divided by creatinine levels to control for variation in urine concentration.”
§ Variation in Oxytocin is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins > Methods > Hormonal Assays
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
The paper relies on this without support.
In both marmosets and tamarins, sexual roles are not highly differentiated, with both sexes taking part in infant care, vigilance, and territory defense.
“In both marmosets and tamarins sexual roles are not highly differentiated, with both taking part in infant care, vigilance and territory defense, which may be related to the lack of sex differences in peripheral oxytocin levels.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“In primates, a study in pair-bonded tamarins examining behavioral correlates over time with repeated samples of urinary oxytocin, showed that pairs that had a closer bond, defined as engaging in higher rather than lower rates of affiliative and sexual behaviors over several weeks also had higher urinary oxytocin concentrations during the same time period (Snowdon et al., 2010).”
From Endogenous peripheral oxytocin measures can give insight into the dynamics of social relationships: a review (2014) · cites this paper as Snowdon et al., 2010
In the citing paper
“Congruent patterns are observed when linking social behaviors to endogenous measures of oxytocin in plasma, urine or saliva in non-human primates (Seltzer and Ziegler, 2007; Maestripieri et al., 2009; Snowdon et al., 2010; Crockford et al., 2013) and humans (Christensson et al., 1989; Holt-Lunstad et al., 2008; Morhenn et al., 2008; Gordon et al., 2010).”
From Endogenous peripheral oxytocin measures can give insight into the dynamics of social relationships: a review (2014) · cites this paper as Snowdon et al., 2010
In the citing paper
“In tamarins, for example, Snowdon et al. (2010) implanted three males with an estradiol pellet (1.5 mg continuous release over 30 days) and collected urine samples before and during the period of the implant. Estradiol increased significantly in all three males (t = 3.64, P = 0.04) ensuring the effectiveness of the pellets in raising estradiol. Male oxytocin response varied substantially, but two”
From Endogenous peripheral oxytocin measures can give insight into the dynamics of social relationships: a review (2014) · cites this paper as Snowdon et al., 2010
In the citing paper
“Validations to test for this have been performed for several primate species (cotton-top tamarins: Snowdon et al., 2010; marmoset: Seltzer and Ziegler, 2007; humans: Seltzer et al., 2010; chimpanzees: Ziegler et al., unpublished data).”
From Endogenous peripheral oxytocin measures can give insight into the dynamics of social relationships: a review (2014) · cites this paper as Snowdon et al., 2010
In the citing paper
“Urinary levels of OT co-vary with social behavior in male and female cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus), with variance in female OT levels associated with grooming behavior and mutual physical contact with a partner, and variance in male OT levels associated with sexual behavior (Snowdon et al., 2010).”
From Oxytocin facilitates fidelity in well-established marmoset pairs by reducing sociosexual behavior toward opposite-sex strangers (2014) · cites this paper as Snowdon et al., 2010
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
Inconsistent p-value: F (1, 12) = 10.69, p = .006
MinorThe paper reports p = .006 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .007. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .006 · recomputed p = .007
“F (1, 12) = 10.69, P = 0.006”
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upF(1, 12) = 10.69reported p = .006 · recomputed p = .007
“F (1, 12) = 10.69, p = .006”
- Consistentt(26) = 1.17reported p = .25 · recomputed p = .253
“t (26) = 1.17, p = .25”
- Consistentt(13) = 1.35reported p = .199 · recomputed p = .200
“t (13) = 1.35, p = .199”
- ConsistentF(2, 11) = 9.54reported p = .004 · recomputed p = .004
“F (2, 11) = 9.54, p = .004”
- ConsistentF(3, 10) = 3.937reported p = .04 · recomputed p = .043
“F (3, 10) = 3.937, p = .04”
- ConsistentF(1, 12) = 7.46reported p = .02 · recomputed p = .018
“F (1, 12) = 7.46, p = .02”
- ConsistentF(3, 10) = 21.54reported p = .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F (3, 10) = 21.54, p = .001”
The paper prints p at a floor (such as p < .001)
- ConsistentF(2, 11) = 8.53reported p = .006 · recomputed p = .006
“F (2, 11) = 8.53, p = .006”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Female regression lists two predictors but reports three predictor degrees of freedom
MinorThe description identifies affiliation duration and frequency as the model's predictors and says sex was excluded. Its F(3, 10) statistic instead indicates three predictors, leaving a predictor unaccounted for.
“the model excluded sex but included both affiliation duration and affiliation frequency”
“F (3, 10) = 3.937, P = 0.04 adjusted r square = 0.40”
Erection-model F statistic does not equal the squared t statistic
MinorFor a regression with one predictor, the predictor's t statistic squared must equal the model F statistic. The reported t of 3.31 gives 10.9561, rather than the reported F of 10.69; the gap exceeds rounding to the printed precision.
Reported 10.69 · recomputed 10.9561
“F (1, 12) = 10.69, P = 0.006, adjusted r-square= 0.43, beta for erection = 0.69, t = 3.31, P = 0.006”
Male oxytocin range uses inconsistent units
MinorThe male range is given in ng/mg Cr, whereas the assay values and the reported male mean are in pg/mg Cr. The stated units differ by a factor of 1,000.
“males (3.89 to 39.92 ng/mg Cr)”
“Male 16.26 ± 3.56 pg/mg Cr”
Male sexual behavior does not explain the stated 45% of variance
MinorThe discussion says sexual behavior explained 45% of male oxytocin variance. The corresponding results report an adjusted R-squared of 0.33; their F statistic gives an unadjusted R-squared of about 0.38, not 0.45.
“For males, frequency of pair sexual behavior explained 45% of the variance”
“F (1, 12) = 7.46, P = 0.02, adjusted r square = 0.33; beta coefficient for sexual behavior = 0.62, t = 2.731, P = 0.02”
Citations
Cites
Oxytocin increases trust in humans
Kosfeld, M., Heinrichs, M., Zak, P. J., Fischbacher, U., & Fehr, E. (2005) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature03701 · Cited by 3,690
Neuroendocrine perspectives on social attachment and love
Sue Carter, C. (1998) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/s0306-4530(98)00055-9 · Cited by 1,425
Uvnäs-Moberg, K. (1998) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/s0306-4530(98)00056-0 · Cited by 966 · cited 3×
“Some studies have shown that sexual activities as well as gentle stroking and touching can elicit increased oxytocin levels in humans (Uvnäs-Moberg, 1998; Krüger et al., 2003; Light et al., 2005).”
BackgroundPedersen, C. A., & Prange, A. J. (1979) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.76.12.6661 · Cited by 841
Oxytocin receptor distribution reflects social organization in monogamous and polygamous voles
Insel, T. R., & Shapiro, L. E. (1992) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.89.13.5981 · Cited by 833
Feldman, R., Weller, A., Zagoory-Sharon, O., & Levine, A. (2007) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.02010.x · Cited by 787
Adult attachment predicts maternal brain and oxytocin response to infant cues.
Strathearn, L., Fonagy, P., Amico, J., & Montague, P. R. (2009) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2009.103 · Cited by 773
Neurophysiological Correlates of Affiliative Behaviour between Humans and Dogs
Odendaal, J. S. J., & Meintjes, R. A. (2003) · The Veterinary Journal · doi:10.1016/s1090-0233(02)00237-x · Cited by 742
Neuropeptidergic regulation of affiliative behavior and social bonding in animals
Lim, M. M., & Young, L. J. (2006) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.06.028 · Cited by 624
Oxytocin is associated with human trustworthiness
ZAK, P., KURZBAN, R., & MATZNER, W. (2005) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.07.009 · Cited by 595
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Snowdon, 2007, Growing up cooperatively: family processes and infant development in marmosets and tamarins, J. Devel. Proc., 2, 40
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Oxytocin and social affiliation in humans
Feldman, R. (2012) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.01.008 · Cited by 767
“…1995): intracerebroventricular infusion of OT facilitates partner's attachment in female prairie voles (Williams et al., 1994), blockade of OT receptors impairs bond formation (Cho et al., 1999), and peripheral levels of OT correlate with partners' affiliative behavior (Snowdon et al., 2010).”
BackgroundThe Evolutionary Origins of Friendship
Seyfarth, R. M., & Cheney, D. L. (2011) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100337 · Cited by 476
“In a study of monogamously bonded tamarins (Saguinus oedipus), for example, Snowdon et al. (2010) found that both males and females exhibited a tenfold variation in levels of oxytocin.”
BackgroundUrinary oxytocin and social bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees
Crockford, C., Wittig, R. M., Langergraber, K., Ziegler, T. E., Zuberbühler, K., & Deschner, T. (2013) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2012.2765 · Cited by 347
Self-citationvan Anders, S. M., Goldey, K. L., & Kuo, P. X. (2011) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.06.001 · Cited by 321
“OT is also implicated in sexual intimacy, including orgasm, satiety, and activity (Carter, 1992; Insel et al., 1998; Young et al., 2008; Snowdon et al., 2010).”
InfluentialA practical guide to the study of social relationships
Silk, J., Cheney, D., & Seyfarth, R. (2013) · Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews · doi:10.1002/evan.21367 · Cited by 252
Metadata
- Authors
- Snowdon, C. T., Pieper, B. A., Boe, C. Y., Cronin, K. A., Kurian, A. V., & Ziegler, T. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- University of Wisconsin System (US)
- Corresponding author
- Snowdon, Charles T.
- Venue
- Hormones and Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2010-09
- Volume
- 58
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 614-618
- ISSN
- 0018-506X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2933949
- OpenAlex
- W2105122295
- Semantic Scholar
- 9ee3a5c7e1485fed3d1ce8b026bf4f80dc824966
- Cited by
- 133
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 16.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Hormones and Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics (submittedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (RR000167, P51OD011106)
- U.S. Public Health Service
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH 035215, R01MH035215)
- National Center for Research Resources (RR 000167, P51RR000167)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Primate Behavior and Ecology
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
- Keywords
- oxytocin, affiliative behavior, pair bonding, monogamy, cotton-top tamarin, Saguinus oedipus, grooming, sexual behavior, contact behavior, sex differences, social bonds, ovulatory cycle
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Behavior, Animal, Estradiol, Female, Hydrocortisone, Individuality, Male, Oxytocin, Pair Bond, Saguinus, Social Behavior
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-09, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-09 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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