Testosterone and cortisol jointly regulate dominance: evidence for a dual-hormone hypothesis
Abstract
Traditional theories propose that testosterone should increase dominance and other status-seeking behaviors, but empirical support has been inconsistent. The present research tested the hypothesis that testosterone's effect on dominance depends on cortisol, a glucocorticoid hormone implicated in psychological stress and social avoidance. In the domains of leadership (Study 1, mixed-sex sample) and competition (Study 2, male-only sample), testosterone was positively related to dominance, but only in individuals with low cortisol. In individuals with high cortisol, the relation between testosterone and dominance was blocked (Study 1) or reversed (Study 2). Study 2 further showed that these hormonal effects on dominance were especially likely to occur after social threat (social defeat). The present studies provide the first empirical support for the claim that the neuroendocrine reproductive (HPG) and stress (HPA) axes interact to regulate dominance. Because dominance is related to gaining and maintaining high status positions in social hierarchies, the findings suggest that only when cortisol is low should higher testosterone encourage higher status. When cortisol is high, higher testosterone may actually decrease dominance and in turn motivate lower status.
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Elevated testosterone levels are associated with increased motivational drive, reduced fearfulness, and enhanced stress resilience.
“Specifically, elevated testosterone levels are associated with increased motivational drive, reduced fearfulness, and enhanced stress resilience [36,67].”
From Socializing a group of male Asian elephants in a semi-captive facility in Lao PDR (2025) · cites this paper as [67]
When cortisol is high, higher testosterone may decrease dominance and motivate lower status-seeking behavior.
“Conversely, when cortisol is high, higher testosterone may actually decrease dominance and motivate lower status-seeking behavior [67].”
From Socializing a group of male Asian elephants in a semi-captive facility in Lao PDR (2025) · cites this paper as [67]
Higher fAM may be positively related to dominance when cortisol is low, as that allows for the overt expression of dominant behaviors.
“Higher fAM may be positively related to dominance when cortisol is low, as that allows for the overt expression of dominant behaviors.”
From Socializing a group of male Asian elephants in a semi-captive facility in Lao PDR (2025) · cites this paper as [67]
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Socializing a group of male Asian elephants in a semi-captive facility in Lao PDR
López Pérez, A. B., Brown, J. L., Goldenberg, S. Z., Rey, A., & Khonmee, J. (2025) · PLOS One · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0332944 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Conversely, when cortisol is high, higher testosterone may actually decrease dominance and motivate lower status-seeking behavior [67].”
- Authors
- Mehta, P. H., & Josephs, R. A.
- Affiliations
- Erasmus University Rotterdam (NL)
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- Corresponding author
- Mehta, Pranjal H.
- Josephs, Robert A.
- Venue
- Hormones and Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2010-11
- Volume
- 58
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 898-906
- ISSN
- 0018-506X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2165184726
- Cited by
- 574
- References
- 63
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 35 · 2021: 43 · 2020: 43 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 50 · 2017: 49 · 2016: 42 · 2015: 47 · 2014: 35 · 2013: 30 · 2012: 31
- FWCI
- 30.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Hormones and Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Keywords
- testosterone, cortisol, dominance, dual-hormone hypothesis, social status, leadership, competition, social defeat, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, glucocorticoids, social hierarchy
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aggression, Competitive Behavior, Drug Synergism, Female, Humans, Hydrocortisone, Leadership, Male, Models, Theoretical, Saliva, Social Dominance, Stress, Psychological, Task Performance and Analysis, Testosterone
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