Working memory, short-term memory, speech rate, word recognition and reading comprehension in learning disabled readers: does the executive system have a role?11The research was supported by Peloy Endowment Funds awarded by the first author. This work is truly a collaborative endeavor. First authorship primarily reflects responsibility for write-up and data analysis and second authorship reflects data collection. Data was collected by the second author in the Redlands Unified School District. The authors are thankful to staff at the Redlands School District and for the comments of Jerry Carlson, Richard Eyman, Kathy Wilson, Carole Lee, Randy Engle, and the two reviewers of this journal on an earlier draft. Inquiries and requests should be directed to H. Lee Swanson, Educational Psychology, School of Education, University of California, Riverside, CA., 92521-0128.

Swanson, H.Lee; Ashbaker, Margaret Howell

doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(99)00025-2

Cited by 192Reading and Literacy DevelopmentDevelopmental and Educational NeuropsychologyCognitive Abilities and Testing

Working memory, short-term memory, speech rate, word recognition and reading comprehension in learning disabled readers: does the executive system have a role?11The research was supported by Peloy Endowment Funds awarded by the first author. This work is truly a collaborative endeavor. First authorship primarily reflects responsibility for write-up and data analysis and second authorship reflects data collection. Data was collected by the second author in the Redlands Unified School District. The authors are thankful to staff at the Redlands School District and for the comments of Jerry Carlson, Richard Eyman, Kathy Wilson, Carole Lee, Randy Engle, and the two reviewers of this journal on an earlier draft. Inquiries and requests should be directed to H. Lee Swanson, Educational Psychology, School of Education, University of California, Riverside, CA., 92521-0128.

Swanson, H.Lee, Ashbaker, Margaret Howell·2000·Intelligence

DOI 10.1016/s0160-2896(99)00025-2

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/s0160-2896(99)00025-2

Cites

64 of 64 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

We couldn’t retrieve this paper’s full text, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Working memory deficits have been correlated with word recognition and reading comprehension.
“WM deficits have been correlated with word recognition and reading comprehension (Swanson and Ashbaker, 2000).”
From Assessment of executive functions in school-aged children: A narrative review (2022) · cites this paper as Swanson and Ashbaker, 2000

Individual differences in working memory and reading
Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(80)90312-6 · Cited by 6,336 · see citing works
A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1992) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.99.1.122 · Cited by 4,153 · see citing works
Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and a new view
Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. T. (1988) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60041-9 · Cited by 3,456 · see citing works
Exploring the Central Executive
Baddeley, A. (1996) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/713755608 · Cited by 2,390 · see citing works
Is working memory capacity task dependent?
Turner, M. L., & Engle, R. W. (1989) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/0749-596x(89)90040-5 · Cited by 2,299 · see citing works
The American Heritage Word Frequency Book
Warren, R. E., Carroll, J. B., Davies, P. S., & Richman, B. (1973) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421864 · Cited by 1,379 · see citing works
Phenotypic performance profile of children with reading disabilities: A regression-based test of the phonological-core variable-difference model.
Stanovich, K. E., & Siegel, L. S. (1994) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.86.1.24 · Cited by 1,253 · see citing works
Working Memory and Language
Gathercole, S. E., & Baddeley, A. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315804682 · Cited by 1,105 · see citing works
Evaluation of the role of phonological STM in the development of vocabulary in children: A longitudinal study
Gathercole, S. E., & Baddeley, A. D. (1989) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/0749-596x(89)90044-2 · Cited by 1,018 · see citing works
The Nonword Reading Deficit in Developmental Dyslexia: A Review
Rack, J. P., Snowling, M. J., & Olson, R. K. (1992) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.2307/747832 · Cited by 873 · see citing works
The Development of Working Memory in Normally Achieving and Subtypes of Learning Disabled Children
Siegel, L. S., & Ryan, E. B. (1989) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1131037 · Cited by 842 · see citing works
The Development of Working Memory in Normally Achieving and Subtypes of Learning Disabled Children
Siegel, L. S., & Ryan, E. B. (1989) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1989.tb03528.x · Cited by 837 · see citing works
Working Memory and Language
Daneman, M. (1994) · Language and Speech · doi:10.1177/002383099403700409 · Cited by 762 · see citing works
Memory for familiar and unfamiliar words: Evidence for a long-term memory contribution to short-term memory span
Hulme, C., Maughan, S., & Brown, G. D. A. (1991) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/0749-596x(91)90032-f · Cited by 742 · see citing works
Age and inhibition.
Hasher, L., Stoltzfus, E. R., Zacks, R. T., & Rypma, B. (1991) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.17.1.163 · Cited by 730 · see citing works
Individual differences in working memory and comprehension: A test of four hypotheses.
Engle, R. W., Cantor, J., & Carullo, J. J. (1992) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.18.5.972 · Cited by 626 · see citing works
Individual differences in working memory and comprehension: A test of four hypotheses.
Engle, R. W., Cantor, J., & Carullo, J. J. (1992) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.18.5.972 · Cited by 624 · see citing works
Cognitive Processing in Bilinguals
(1992) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)x6061-3 · Cited by 459 · see citing works
The speech code and learning to read.
Shankweiler, D., Liberman, I. Y., Mark, L. S., Fowler, C. A., & Fischer, F. W. (1979) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Learning & Memory · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.5.6.531 · Cited by 390 · see citing works
Age and inhibition.
Hasher, L., Stoltzfus, E. R., Zacks, R. T., et al. (1991) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.17.1.163 · Cited by 387 · see citing works
Speech rate and the development of short-term memory span
Hulme, C., Thomson, N. C., Muir, C., & Lawrence, A. (1984) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-0965(84)90124-3 · Cited by 379 · see citing works
Working-memory capacity as long-term memory activation: An individual-differences approach.
Cantor, J., & Engle, R. W. (1993) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.19.5.1101 · Cited by 365 · see citing works
Is Working Memory Working? The Fifteenth Bartlett Lecture
Baddeley, A. (1992) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/14640749208401281 · Cited by 344 · see citing works
Simple and complex word spans as measures of working memory capacity.
la Pointe, L. B., & Engle, R. W. (1990) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.16.6.1118 · Cited by 342 · see citing works
Working Memory Deficits of Reading Disabled Children
de Jong, P. F. (1998) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1006/jecp.1998.2451 · Cited by 306 · see citing works
Concepts in developmental theories of reading skill: Cognitive resources, automaticity, and modularity
Stanovich, K. E. (1990) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/0273-2297(90)90005-o · Cited by 276 · see citing works
Learning to Read: The Role of Short-Term Memory and Phonological Skills
McDougall, S. J. P., Hulme, C., Ellis, A. W., & Monk, A. F. (1994) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1006/jecp.1994.1028 · Cited by 259 · see citing works
Working Memory and Severe Learning Difficulties
Hulme, C., & Mackenzie, S. (1992) · UCL Discovery (University College London) · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Resistance to Interference: Developmental Changes in a Basic Processing Mechanism
Dempster, F. N. (1993) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9220-0_1 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Working memory development: The effects of speech rate, word length, and acoustic similarity on serial recall
Hulme, C., & Tordoff, V. (1989) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-0965(89)90063-5 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Generality and modifiability of working memory among skilled and less skilled readers.
Swanson, H. L. (1992) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.473 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Self-citation
Working-memory capacity as long-term memory activation: An individual-differences approach.
Cantor, J., & Engle, R. W. (1993) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.19.5.1101 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
The role of working memory in skilled and less skilled readers' comprehension
Swanson, H. L., & Berninger, V. M. (1995) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(95)90040-3 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Self-citation
Short-term memory does not involve the "working memory" of information processing: The demise of a common assumption.
Klapp, S. T., Marshburn, E. A., & Lester, P. T. (1983) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.112.2.240 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Working memory and human cognition
(1997) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-3597 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
A longitudinal case study of developmental phonological dyslexia
Snowling, M. J., & Hulme, C. (1989) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/02643298908253289 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Individual and age-related differences in children’s working memory
Swanson, H. L. (1996) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03197273 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Self-citation
Cognitive approaches to reading
Beech, J. R., & Colley, A. M. (1987) · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Short-term memory, working memory, and verbal abilities: How do they relate?
Cantor, J., Engle, R. W., & Hamilton, G. (1991) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(91)90032-9 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Learning disabled readers working memory as a function of processing demands
Swanson, H. L., Ashbaker, M. H., & Lee, C. (1996) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1006/jecp.1996.0016 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Self-citation
Unimpaired Short-term Memory and Rhyme Judgement in Congenitally Speechless Individuals: Implications for the Notion of “Articulatory Coding”
Bishop, D., & Robson, J. (1989) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/14640748908402356 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Working Memory and Retrieval: An Inhibition-Resource Approach
Engle, R. W. (1996) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195100990.003.0004 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Short-Term Memory Development in Childhood and Adolescence
Dempster, F. N. (1985) · Springer series in cognitive development · doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9541-6_5 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Working Memory and Human Cognition
Richardson, J. T. E., Engle, R. W., Hasher, L., Logie, R. H., Stoltzfus, E. R., & Zacks, R. T. (1996) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195100990.001.0001 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Neuropsychological foundations of learning disabilities: A handbook of issues, methods, and practice.
Obrzut, J. E., & Hynd, G. W. (1991) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Reading and Working Memory
Baddeley, A. D. (1984) · set Research Information for Teachers · doi:10.18296/set.1226 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Free recall in boys of normal and poor reading levels as a function of task manipulations
Dallago, M. L. L., & Moely, B. E. (1980) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-0965(80)90075-2 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Counting Rate, Naming Rate, Phonological Sensitivity, and Memory Span: Major Factors in Dyslexia
Ackerman, P. T., Dykman, R. A., & Gardner, M. Y. (1990) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/002221949002300514 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Output-interference theory of dual-task deficits in memory development
Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (1989) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-0965(89)90056-8 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Wide Range Achievement Test-4
Caplan, B. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-57111-9_3000 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Working memory in skilled and less skilled readers
Swanson, H. L., Cochran, K. F., & Ewers, C. A. (1989) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/bf00913790 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Self-citation
Cognitive Psychology and Second Language Processing: The Role of Short-Term Memory
Brown, G. D. A. (1992) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)61490-9 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Reading-Level-Match Designs: Myths and Realities
Jackson, N. E., & Butterfield, E. C. (1989) · Journal of Reading Behavior · doi:10.1080/10862968909547686 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Impairment in Processing Meaningless Verbal Material in Several Modalities: The Relationship between Short-term Memory and Phonological Skills
Bisiacchi, P. S., Cipolotti, L., & Denes, G. (1989) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/14640748908402367 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Do Immediate Memory Deficits in Students with Learning Disabilities in Reading Reflect a Developmental Lag or Deficit?: A Selective Meta-Analysis of the Literature
O'Shaughnessy, T. E., & Swanson, H. L. (1998) · Learning Disability Quarterly · doi:10.2307/1511341 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Self-citation
Domains of Fuzzy-Trace Theory
Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (1993) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9220-0_3 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Generalization from categorical memory tasks to prose by learning disabled adolescents.
Gelzheiser, L. M. (1984) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-0663.76.6.1128 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Reading Comprehension in Dyslexic and Normal Readers: A Component-Skills Analysis
Olson, F. A. C. R. K. (2012) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203052389-34 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Depressive deficits in memory: Processing initiative and resource allocation.
Ellis, H. C. (1990) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.119.1.60 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
The effects of central processing strategies on learning disabled, mildly retarded, average, and gifted children's elaborative encoding abilities
Swanson, H. L. (1989) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-0965(89)90020-9 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Self-citation
Generalization from categorical memory tasks to prose by learning disabled adolescents.
Gelzheiser, L. M. (1984) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.76.6.1128 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
The development of serial short-term memory and the articulatory loop hypothesis
Cohen, R. L., & Heath, M. (1990) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(90)90002-b · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Memory Span, Naming Speed, and Memory Strategies in Poor and Normal Readers
Anderson, R. S. J. M. (1998) · Memory · doi:10.1080/741942073 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Short-Term Memory and Working Memory Operations and Their Contribution to Reading in Adolescents with and without Learning Disabilities.
Ashbaker, M. H., & Swanson, H. L. (1996) · Learning Disabilities Research and Practice · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citation

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

Training writing skills: a cognitive developmental perspective
Kellogg, R. T. (2008) · Journal of Writing Research · doi:10.17239/jowr-2008.01.01.1 · Cited by 868 · see citing works
Cognitive predictors of achievement growth in mathematics: A 5-year longitudinal study.
Geary, D. C. (2011) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0025510 · Cited by 836 · see citing works
The Relationship Between Working Memory and Mathematical Problem Solving in Children at Risk and Not at Risk for Serious Math Difficulties.
Swanson, H. L., & Beebe-Frankenberger, M. (2004) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471 · Cited by 638 · see citing works
Self-citation
Profiles of everyday executive function in acquired and developmental disorders.
Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Kenworthy, L., & Barton, R. M. (2002) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1076/chin.8.2.121.8727 · Cited by 498 · see citing works
Executive functions for reading and writing in typical literacy development and dyslexia
Altemeier, L. E., Abbott, R. D., & Berninger, V. W. (2008) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803390701562818 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
Updating in working memory: A comparison of good and poor comprehenders
Carretti, B., Cornoldi, C., De Beni, R., & Romanò, M. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2005.01.005 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Memory functioning in children with reading disabilities and/or attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a clinical investigation of their working memory and long-term memory functioning
Kibby, M. Y., & Cohen, M. J. (2008) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297040701821752 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Working memory, learning, and academic achievement.
Swanson, H. L., & Alloway, T. P. (2012) · APA educational psychology handbook, Vol 1: Theories, constructs, and critical issues. · doi:10.1037/13273-012 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Self-citation
Working memory and intelligence in children: What develops?
Swanson, H. L. (2008) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.100.3.581 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Self-citation
The structure of intelligence in children with specific learning disabilities is different as compared to typically development children
Giofrè, D., & Cornoldi, C. (2015) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2015.07.002 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
The effect of cognitive training on recall range and speed of information processing in the working memory of dyslexic and skilled readers
Shiran, A., & Breznitz, Z. (2011) · Journal of Neurolinguistics · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroling.2010.12.001 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Assessment of executive functions in school-aged children: A narrative review
Souissi, S., Chamari, K., & Bellaj, T. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.991699 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Converging evidence for attentional influences on the orthographic word form in child dyslexics
Thomson, J. B., Chenault, B., Abbott, R. D., Raskind, W. H., Richards, T., Aylward, E., & Berninger, V. W. (2005) · Journal of Neurolinguistics · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroling.2004.11.005 · Cited by 46 · see citing works

Authors: Swanson, H. L., & Ashbaker, M. H.
Affiliations: University of California, Riverside (US)
Corresponding author: Swanson, H.Lee
ORCID: Swanson, H.Lee
Venue: Intelligence
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2000-02
Volume: 28
Issue: 1
Pages: 1-30
ISSN: 0160-2896 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/s0160-2896(99)00025-2
OpenAlex: W1896666395
Cited by: 192
References: 64
Citations by year: 2026: 3 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 1 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 10
FWCI: 4.89
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Intelligence (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Keywords: learning disabilities, reading disorders, working memory, short-term memory, central executive, phonological loop, speech rate, articulation rate, word recognition, reading comprehension, cued recall, children

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Integrity signals

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Cites

Cited by

Related

Record

About these checks