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Temporal Difference Models and Reward-Related Learning in the Human Brain
Open accessAbstract
Temporal difference learning has been proposed as a model for Pavlovian conditioning, in which an animal learns to predict delivery of reward following presentation of a conditioned stimulus (CS). A key component of this model is a prediction error signal, which, before learning, responds at the time of presentation of reward but, after learning, shifts its response to the time of onset of the CS. In order to test for regions manifesting this signal profile, subjects were scanned using event-related fMRI while undergoing appetitive conditioning with a pleasant taste reward. Regression analyses revealed that responses in ventral striatum and orbitofrontal cortex were significantly correlated with this error signal, suggesting that, during appetitive conditioning, computations described by temporal difference learning are expressed in the human brain.
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“First, the signed prediction error indicates whether an outcome is better or worse than expected, and thereby plays a crucial role in changing the value allocated to cues, thereby guiding future decisions [14–21].”
From Precision weighting of cortical unsigned prediction error signals benefits learning, is mediated by dopamine, and is impaired in psychosis (2021) · cites this paper as [17]
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“Many early fMRI studies into prediction errors used model-free accounts in Pavlovian paradigms and located prediction errors in striatal BOLD (Berns et al., 2001; O’Doherty, 2004; O’Doherty et al., 2003; Haruno et al., 2004).”
From Goals and Habits in the Brain (2013) · cites this paper as O’Doherty et al., 2003
In the citing paper
“These changes in striatum BOLD activity coincide with the process of learning how to predict rewards 15, 16 – an observation supported by electrophysiological properties of its dopaminergic afferents.”
From The social brain and reward: Social information processing in the human striatum (2014) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“human fMRI studies have found that VS activity correlates with RPEs during tasks that feature exclusively Pavlovian reward associations [27,28]”
From Contributions of the striatum to learning, motivation, and performance: an associative account (2012) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“Pupillary response dynamics are thought to reflect multiple different features, including sensory cues36,37, arousal/task engagement38,39, motor activity40,41, and motivation42,43.”
From Revealing abrupt transitions from goal-directed to habitual behavior (2026) · cites this paper as [37]
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Metadata
- Authors
- O'Doherty, J. P., Dayan, P., Friston, K., Critchley, H., & Dolan, R. J.
- Affiliations
- Gatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit (GB)
- UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology (GB)
- Venue
- Neuron
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2003-04
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 329-337
- ISSN
- 0896-6273 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2007414406
- Cited by
- 1,522
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 51 · 2025: 50 · 2024: 51 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 53 · 2021: 55 · 2020: 54 · 2019: 64 · 2018: 87 · 2017: 65 · 2016: 97 · 2015: 71 · 2014: 70 · 2013: 93 · 2012: 97
- FWCI
- 17.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Neuron (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust
- Gatsby Charitable Foundation
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Keywords
- temporal difference learning, prediction error signal, classical conditioning, appetitive conditioning, reward prediction, ventral striatum, orbitofrontal cortex, conditioned stimulus, human brain
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Brain, Brain Mapping, Conditioning, Classical, Corpus Striatum, Female, Frontal Lobe, Humans, Learning, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Reference Values, Reflex, Pupillary, Reward, Taste, Time Perception
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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