Behavior Genetic Research Methods: Testing Quasi-Causal Hypotheses Using Multivariate Twin Data
Abstract
Research design is inextricably linked to data analysis. Research designs can be divided into three fundamental categories: experimental design, quasi-experimental design, and nonexperimental or passive observational design. This chapter focuses almost exclusively on experimental design, for two main reasons. In an experimental design there are always at least two factors such as fixed and random factors or independent variables, variables that are considered to influence the dependent variable response. The chapter discusses a series of questions that must be answered regarding each individual factor in a design. It considers the possible ways that multiple factors included in a single experiment may be interrelated. Multiple factors in a design can be crossed, nested, or confounded. Issues involving the dependent measures in a study are also part of experimental design, and these choices can influence statistical conclusion validity (power), internal validity, construct validity, and external validity.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The co-twin control design rules out processes shared across twin pairs that may nevertheless contribute to substance-related morbidity, such as household opioid availability following prescription to either twin.
“This design additionally rules out processes shared across twin pairs that may nevertheless contribute to substance-related morbidity”
From Association of opioid prescription initiation during adolescence and young adulthood with subsequent substance-related morbidity (2020) · cites this paper as [66]
Cites
Estimating the Dimension of a Model
Schwarz, G. (1978) · The Annals of Statistics · doi:10.1214/aos/1176344136 · Cited by 47,033 · see citing works
Alternative Ways of Assessing Model Fit
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1992) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/0049124192021002005 · Cited by 27,200 · see citing works
Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods.
Longford, N. T., Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1993) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2075823 · Cited by 18,768 · see citing works
Testing Structural Equation Models.
Mueller, C. W., Bollen, K. A., & Long, J. S. (1994) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2074955 · Cited by 14,211 · see citing works
Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods
Davidian, M. (2003) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1198/jasa.2003.s288 · Cited by 13,820 · see citing works
Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: a developmental taxonomy
Moffitt, T. E. (1993) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.100.4.674 · Cited by 9,987 · see citing works
Testing Structural Equation Models.
Clogg, C. C., Bollen, K. A., & Long, J. S. (1995) · Social Forces · doi:10.2307/2580595 · Cited by 8,244 · see citing works
Structural model evaluation and modification: An interval estimation approach
Steiger, J. H. (1990) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr2502_4 · Cited by 7,408 · see citing works
A psychobiological model of temperament and character
Cloninger, C. R. (1993) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820240059008 · Cited by 5,458 · see citing works
Common SNPs explain a large proportion of the heritability for human height
Yang, J., Benyamin, B., McEvoy, B. P., Gordon, S., Henders, A. K., Nyholt, D. R., Madden, P. A., Heath, A. C., Martin, N. G., Montgomery, G. W., et al. (2010) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng.608 · Cited by 4,446 · see citing works
Methodology for Genetic Studies of Twins and Families
Neale, M. C., & Cardon, L. R. (1992) · doi:10.1007/978-94-015-8018-2 · Cited by 4,005 · see citing works
Assessing “Neighborhood Effects”: Social Processes and New Directions in Research
Sampson, R. J., Morenoff, J. D., & Gannon-Rowley, T. (2002) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.28.110601.141114 · Cited by 3,953 · see citing works
Personality similarity in twins reared apart and together.
Tellegen, A., Lykken, D. T., Bouchard, T. J., Wilcox, K. J., Segal, N. L., & Rich, S. (1988) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.54.6.1031 · Cited by 1,514 · see citing works
Ebstein, R. P., Novick, O., Umansky, R., Priel, B., Osher, Y., Blaine, D., Bennett, E. R., Nemanov, L., Katz, M., & Belmaker, R. H. (1996) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng0196-78 · Cited by 1,475 · see citing works
Personality similarity in twins reared apart and together.
Tellegen, A., Lykken, D. T., Bouchard, T. J., et al. (1988) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1031 · Cited by 1,103 · see citing works
Personality and Motivation Structure and Measurement
Sells, S. B., & Cattell, R. B. (1958) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1420273 · Cited by 1,073 · see citing works
Three Laws of Behavior Genetics and What They Mean
Turkheimer, E. N. (2000) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00084 · Cited by 1,025 · see citing works
Self-citationTURNING POINTS IN THE LIFE COURSE: WHY CHANGE MATTERS TO THE STUDY OF CRIME*
Laub, J. H., & Sampson, R. J. (1993) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1993.tb01132.x · Cited by 968 · see citing works
Not in our Genes; Biology, Ideology and Human Nature
Emery, A. (1985) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/0166-2236(85)90067-0 · Cited by 948 · see citing works
Personality and Motivation Structure and Measurement
(1958) · Postgraduate Medical Journal · doi:10.1136/pgmj.34.393.398-a · Cited by 886 · see citing works
Personality Dimensions in Nonhuman Animals
Gosling, S. D., & John, O. P. (1999) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00017 · Cited by 874 · see citing works
Linkage strategies for genetically complex traits. II. The power of affected relative pairs.
RISCH, N. J. (1990) · PubMed · Cited by 868 · see citing works
Not in Our Genes: Biology, Ideology, and Human Nature
Lewontin, R. C., Rose, S., & Kamin, L. J. (1984) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 664 · see citing works
Genetics and the Social Behavior of the Dog
Gault, F. P. (1965) · PubMed Central · Cited by 644 · see citing works
The evolutionary genetics of personality
Penke, L., Denissen, J. J. A., & Miller, G. F. (2007) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.629 · Cited by 610 · see citing works
Genetics and the Social Behavior of the Dog
Scott, J. G., & Fuller, J. L. (1965) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 600 · see citing works
Nonshared environment: a theoretical, methodological, and quantitative review.
Turkheimer, E., & Waldron, M. (2000) · Psychological bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.1.78 · Cited by 583 · see citing works
Self-citation“If You Love Me, Keep My Commandments”: A Meta-Analysis of the Effect of Religion on Crime
BAIER, C. J., & WRIGHT, B. R. E. (2001) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0022427801038001001 · Cited by 572 · see citing works
Parent Management Training: Evidence, Outcomes, and Issues
Kazdin, A. E. (1997) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-199710000-00016 · Cited by 529 · see citing works
Genetic and environmental architecture on human aggression.
Miles, D. R., & Carey, G. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.72.1.207 · Cited by 490 · see citing works
Regression models for twin studies: a critical review
Carlin, J. B., Gurrin, L. C., Sterne, J. A. C., Morley, R., & Dwyer, T. (2005) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyi153 · Cited by 472 · see citing works
Childhood origins of antisocial behavior
Farrington, D. P. (2005) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.448 · Cited by 447 · see citing works
Combined Linkage and Association Sib-Pair Analysis for Quantitative Traits
Fulker, D. W., Cherny, S. S., Sham, P. C., & Hewitt, J. K. (1999) · The American Journal of Human Genetics · doi:10.1086/302193 · Cited by 443 · see citing works
Munafò, M. R., Yalcin, B., Willis-Owen, S. A., & Flint, J. (2008) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.04.006 · Cited by 441 · see citing works
Genetic and environmental architecture on human aggression.
Miles, D. R., & Carey, G. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.1.207 · Cited by 414 · see citing works
The Bone Density of Female Twins Discordant for Tobacco Use
Hopper, J. L., & Seeman, E. (1994) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm199402103300603 · Cited by 391 · see citing works
Genetic Polymorphisms and Personality in Healthy Adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Munafo, M. R., Clark, T. G., Moore, L. R., Payne, E., Walton, R. T., & Jonathan Flint, C. (2003) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4001326 · Cited by 355 · see citing works
The Cholesky approach: A cautionary note
Loehlin, J. C. (1996) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/bf02361160 · Cited by 351 · see citing works
Analyzing data: Sanctification or detective work?
Tukey, J. W. (1969) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/h0027108 · Cited by 321 · see citing works
Military Training and Personality Trait Development
Jackson, J. J., Thoemmes, F. J., Jonkmann, K., Lüdtke, O., & Trautwein, U. (2012) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797611423545 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
Vinkhuyzen, A., Pedersen, N., Yang, J., Lee, S., Magnusson, P., Iacono, W., McGue, M., Madden, P., Heath, A., Luciano, M., et al. (2012) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/tp.2012.27 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
The relationship code: deciphering genetic and social influences on adolescent development
(2000) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.38-0619 · Cited by 302 · see citing works
Ellison, C. G., & Sherkat, D. E. (1995) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/73.4.1415 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
Shipley, B. A., Weiss, A., Der, G., Taylor, M. D., & Deary, I. J. (2007) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0b013e31815abf83 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
Latent variable growth within behavior genetic models
McArdle, J. J. (1986) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/bf01065485 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Conservative Protestant Childrearing: Authoritarian or Authoritative?
Wilcox, W. B. (1998) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2657502 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Wallace, J. M., Brown, T. N., Bachman, J. G., & LaVeist, T. A. (2003) · Journal of Studies on Alcohol · doi:10.15288/jsa.2003.64.843 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
The Impact of Family Religious Life on the Quality of Mother-Child Relations
Pearce, L. D., & Axinn, W. G. (1998) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2657503 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
Pike, A., McGuire, S. A., Hetherington, E. M., Reiss, D., & Plomin, R. J. (1996) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.32.4.590 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Is “maturing out” of problematic alcohol involvement related to personality change?
Littlefield, A. K., Sher, K. J., & Wood, P. K. (2009) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015125 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Koenig, L. B., McGue, M. K., Krueger, R. F., & Bouchard, T. J. (2005) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00316.x · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Behavior genetics and postgenomics
Charney, E. (2012) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x11002226 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Visscher, P. M., Yang, J., & Goddard, M. E. (2010) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1375/twin.13.6.517 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Quantifying and correcting for the winner's curse in genetic association studies
Xiao, R., & Boehnke, M. (2009) · Genetic Epidemiology · doi:10.1002/gepi.20398 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Fullerton, J. M., Cubin, M., Tiwari, H. K., Wang, C., Bomhra, A., Davidson, S. I., Miller, S., Fairburn, C. G., Goodwin, G. M., Neale, M. C., et al. (2003) · The American Journal of Human Genetics · doi:10.1086/374178 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) Twin Data
Harris, K. M., Halpern, C. T., Smolen, A., & Haberstick, B. C. (2006) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1375/183242706779462787 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Spitz, É., Moutier, R., Reed, T., Busnel, M. C., Marchaland, C., Roubertoux, P. L., & Carlier, M. (1996) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/bf02361159 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Person Perception and Personality Pathology
Oltmanns, T. F., & Turkheimer, E. N. (2009) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01601.x · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Self-citationThe National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) Twin Data
Harris, K. M., Halpern, C. T., Smolen, A., & Haberstick, B. C. (2006) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1375/twin.9.6.988 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
The Relationship Code: Deciphering Genetic and Social Influences on Adolescent Development
Toolan, J. M. (2001) · American Journal of Psychotherapy · doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2001.55.1.153 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Wilson, J. F., & Sherkat, D. E. (1994) · Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion · doi:10.2307/1386601 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Hamer, D. H., & Sirota, L. A. (2000) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4000662 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
STATISTICS AND MATHEMATICS IN BIOLOGY
Kempthorne, O., Bancroft, T. A., Gowen, J. W., et al. (1955) · The American Journal of the Medical Sciences · doi:10.1097/00000441-195501000-00026 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Markon, K. E., & Krueger, R. F. (2004) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-004-5587-0 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
McGue, M. K., Iacono, W. G., & Krueger, R. F. (2006) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-006-9061-z · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Rethinking Timing of First Sex and Delinquency
Harden, K. P., Mendle, J., Hill, J. E., Turkheimer, E. N., & Emery, R. E. (2007) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-007-9228-9 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Self-citationCollegiate heavy drinking prospectively predicts change in sensation seeking and impulsivity.
Quinn, P. D., Stappenbeck, C. A., & Fromme, K. (2011) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0023159 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Statistics and Mathematics in Biology.
Sampford, M. R., Kempthorne, O., Bancroft, T. A., Owen, J. W., & Lush, J. L. (1955) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A (General) · doi:10.2307/2343135 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Genome-wide Association Studies and Human Disease
Visscher, P. M., & Montgomery, G. W. (2009) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2009.1643 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Middeldorp, C. M., de Geus, E. J. C., Beem, A. L., Lakenberg, N., Hottenga, J., Slagboom, P. E., & Boomsma, D. I. (2007) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-006-9139-7 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Smith, D. (2003) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470775707 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Turkheimer, E. N. (2011) · Research in Human Development · doi:10.1080/15427609.2011.625321 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Self-citationMethodology for Genetic Studies of Twins and Families
Carothers, A. D. (1994) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.48.3.328 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Mixed-Effects Variance Components Models for Biometric Family Analyses
Mcardle, J., & Prescott, C. (2005) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-005-2868-1 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
(1997) · Technometrics · doi:10.1080/00401706.1997.10485467 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Juvenile delinquency: Understanding the origins of individual differences.
Quinsey, V. L., Skilling, T. A., Lalumière, M. L., & Craig, W. (2004) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10623-000 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Burt, S. A. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013702 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Spotts, E. L., Pedersen, N. L., Neiderhiser, J. M., et al. (2005) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/0893-3200.19.3.339 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Mann, V., Stavola, B. L. D., & Leon, D. A. (2004) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.1853 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Philosophy of Behavioral Biology
Plaisance, K. S., & Reydon, T. A. C. (2011) · Boston studies in the philosophy of science · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-1951-4 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Morley, R., Moore, V., Dwyer, T., Owens, J. A., Umstad, M. P., & Carlin, J. B. (2005) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1203/01.pdr.0000156505.12614.ff · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Linkage of a normal personality trait to the color-blindness gene: preliminary evidence
Benjamin, J., Press, J., MAOZ, B., et al. (1993) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0006-3223(93)90206-s · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Emile Durkheim and Sociologismic Psychology
Alpert, H. (1939) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/218209 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Thinking Clearly About Correlations and Causation: Graphical Causal Models for Observational Data
Rohrer, J. M. (2018) · Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2515245917745629 · Cited by 1,002 · see citing works
Using genetics for social science
Harden, K. P., & Koellinger, P. D. (2020) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-020-0862-5 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Self-citationA phenotypic null hypothesis for the genetics of personality.
Turkheimer, E., Pettersson, E., & Horn, E. E. (2014) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143752 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Self-citationGoossens, L., van Roekel, E., Verhagen, M., Cacioppo, J. T., Cacioppo, S., Maes, M., & Boomsma, D. I. (2015) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691614564878 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Intimate Relationships and Depression: Searching for Causation in the Sea of Association
Whisman, M. A., Sbarra, D. A., & Beach, S. R. H. (2021) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-081219-103323 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Ohlsson Gotby, V., Lichtenstein, P., Långström, N., & Pettersson, E. (2018) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12884 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Quinn, P. D., Fine, K. L., Rickert, M. E., Sujan, A. C., Boersma, K., Chang, Z., Franck, J., Lichtenstein, P., Larsson, H., & D’Onofrio, B. M. (2020) · JAMA Pediatrics · doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.2539 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Sleep duration and area-level deprivation in twins
Watson, N. F., Horn, E., Duncan, G. E., Buchwald, D., Vitiello, M. V., & Turkheimer, E. (2016) · SLEEP · doi:10.5665/sleep.5320 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Self-citationQuinn, P. D., Pettersson, E., Lundström, S., Anckarsäter, H., Långström, N., Gumpert, C. H., Larsson, H., Lichtenstein, P., & D'Onofrio, B. M. (2016) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.32412 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Gene-environment interplay in depressive symptoms: Moderation by age, sex, and physical illness
Petkus, A. J., Beam, C. R., Johnson, W., Kaprio, J., Korhonen, T., McGue, M., Neiderhiser, J. M., Pedersen, N. L., Reynolds, C. A., Gatz, M., et al. (2017) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291717000290 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
A Multimethodological Study of Preschoolers' Preferences for Aggressive Television and Video Games
Jamnik, M. R., & DiLalla, L. F. (2018) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.2018.1454883 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
- Authors
- Turkheimer, E., & Harden, K. P.
- Venue
- Handbook of Research Methods in Social and Personality Psychology
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press
- Published
- 2014-02-24
- Pages
- 159-187
- OpenAlex
- W360262676
- Cited by
- 111
- References
- 83
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 2 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 31.03
- Type
- book chapter
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Cambridge University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Optimal Experimental Design Methods
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
- Social Sciences › Education › Diverse Academic Research Areas
- Keywords
- experimental design, quasi-experimental design, non-experimental design, independent variables, dependent variables, factorial design, nested factors, confounding, statistical power, internal validity, construct validity, generalizability, behavioral genetics
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
