A psychobiological model of temperament and character
Abstract
In this study, we describe a psychobiological model of the structure and development of personality that accounts for dimensions of both temperament and character. Previous research has confirmed four dimensions of temperament: novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, and persistence, which are independently heritable, manifest early in life, and involve preconceptual biases in perceptual memory and habit formation. For the first time, we describe three dimensions of character that mature in adulthood and influence personal and social effectiveness by insight learning about self-concepts. Self-concepts vary according to the extent to which a person identifies the self as (1) an autonomous individual, (2) an integral part of humanity, and (3) an integral part of the universe as a whole. Each aspect of self-concept corresponds to one of three character dimensions called self-directedness, cooperativeness, and self-transcendence, respectively. We also describe the conceptual background and development of a self-report measure of these dimensions, the Temperament and Character Inventory. Data on 300 individuals from the general population support the reliability and structure of these seven personality dimensions. We discuss the implications for studies of information processing, inheritance, development, diagnosis, and treatment.
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The Cloninger's Temperament and Character Inventory-Revised (TCI-R) short-version is a useful instrument to assess Cloninger's model of the 7 dimensions of personality in non-clinical samples.
“It is considered as a useful instrument to assess Cloninger’s model of the 7 dimensions of personality in non-clinical samples [46,47,48].”
From Acceptance Mindfulness-Trait as a Protective Factor for Post-Natal Depression: A Preliminary Research (2022) · cites this paper as [46]
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Evans, A. C. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.09.068 · Cited by 523 · see citing works
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Personality and substance use disorders: A prospective study.
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Compulsive drug use linked to sensitized ventral striatal dopamine transmission.
Evans, A. H., Pavese, N., Lawrence, A. D., Tai, Y. F., Appel, S., Doder, M., Brooks, D. J., Lees, A. J., & Piccini, P. (2006) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.20822 · Cited by 473 · see citing works
Pluck, G. C. (2002) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp.73.6.636 · Cited by 473 · see citing works
Recurrent abdominal pain, anxiety, and depression in primary care
Campo, J. V., Bridge, J., Ehmann, M., Altman, S., Lucas, A., Birmaher, B., Lorenzo, C. D., Iyengar, S., & Brent, D. A. (2004) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.113.4.817 · Cited by 467 · see citing works
De Fruyt, F., Van De Wiele, L., & Van Heeringen, C. (2000) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00204-4 · Cited by 455 · see citing works
Eating disorders and personality: a methodological and empirical review.
Lilenfeld, L., Wonderlich, S., Riso, L. P., Crosby, R., & Mitchell, J. (2006) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2005.10.003 · Cited by 461 · see citing works
Impulse buying and variety seeking: A trait-correlates perspective
Sharma, P., Sivakumaran, B., & Marshall, R. (2009) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2009.03.013 · Cited by 454 · see citing works
Self-Transcendence: Conceptualization and Measurement
Levenson, M. R., Jennings, P. A., Aldwin, C. M., & Shiraishi, R. W. (2005) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/xrxm-fyra-7u0x-grc0 · Cited by 454 · see citing works
Depression and Internet Addiction in Adolescents
Ha, J. H., Kim, S. Y., Bae, S. C., Bae, S., Kim, H., Sim, M., Lyoo, I. K., & Cho, S. C. (2007) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000107426 · Cited by 453 · see citing works
Leblond, C. S., Heinrich, J., Delorme, R., Proepper, C., Betancur, C., Huguet, G., Konyukh, M., Chaste, P., Ey, E., Rastam, M., et al. (2012) · PLoS Genetics · doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002521 · Cited by 429 · see citing works
Personality and the perception of health and happiness.
Cloninger, C., & Zohar, A. (2011) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2010.06.012 · Cited by 410 · see citing works
Self-citationNeuropsychosocial profiles of current and future adolescent alcohol misusers
Whelan, R., Watts, R., Orr, C., Althoff, R., Artiges, E., Banaschewski, T., Barker, G., Bokde, A., Büchel, C., Carvalho, F. M., et al. (2014) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature13402 · Cited by 438 · see citing works
Rommelse, N. N. J., Geurts, H. M., Franke, B., Buitelaar, J. K., & Hartman, C. A. (2011) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.02.015 · Cited by 429 · see citing works
Emotion-induced changes in human medial prefrontal cortex: II. During anticipatory anxiety
Simpson, J. R., Drevets, W. C., Snyder, A. Z., Gusnard, D. A., & Raichle, M. E. (2001) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.98.2.688 · Cited by 438 · see citing works
Heath, A. C., Cloninger, C. R., & Martin, N. G. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.66.4.762 · Cited by 427 · see citing works
Self-citationTrait explanations in personality psychology
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. (1995) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2410090402 · Cited by 426 · see citing works
Goldberg, L. R., & Saucier, G. (1998) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/1467-6494.00022 · Cited by 425 · see citing works
Understanding the Complex of Suicide in Depression: from Research to Clinics
Orsolini, L., Latini, R., Pompili, M., Serafini, G., Volpe, U., Vellante, F., Fornaro, M., Valchera, A., Tomasetti, C., Fraticelli, S., et al. (2020) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2019.0171 · Cited by 373 · see citing works
Impulse control disorders in parkinson disease: A multicenter case–control study
Voon, V., Sohr, M., Lang, A. E., Potenza, M. N., Siderowf, A. D., Whetteckey, J., Weintraub, D. A., Wunderlich, G. R., & Stacy, M. A. (2011) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.22356 · Cited by 400 · see citing works
Grave, R. D., Calugi, S., & Marchesini, G. (2008) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2007.12.007 · Cited by 396 · see citing works
Drabant, E. M., Hariri, A. R., Meyer‐Lindenberg, A., Muñoz, K. E., Mattay, V. S., Kolachana, B. S., Egan, M. F., & Weinberger, D. R. (2006) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.12.1396 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
Prevalence and correlates of binge eating disorder in a community sample
Grucza, R. A., Przybeck, T. R., & Cloninger, C. R. (2006) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2006.08.002 · Cited by 379 · see citing works
Self-citationLee, B., London, E. D., Poldrack, R. A., Farahi, J., Nacca, A., Monterosso, J. R., Mumford, J. A., Bokarius, A. V., Dahlbom, M., Mukherjee, J., et al. (2009) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3765-09.2009 · Cited by 374 · see citing works
A test of the four-factor model of impulsivity-related traits
Miller, J., Flory, K., Lynam, D., & Leukefeld, C. (2003) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(02)00122-8 · Cited by 373 · see citing works
Yamagata, S., Suzuki, A., Ando, J., Ono, Y., Kijima, N., Yoshimura, K., Ostendorf, F., Angleitner, A., Riemann, R., Spinath, F. M., et al. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.6.987 · Cited by 373 · see citing works
Eriksson, M., Ghazinour, M., & Hammarström, A. (2018) · Social Theory & Health · doi:10.1057/s41285-018-0065-6 · Cited by 384 · see citing works
“The PPCT model is well in line with the ideas of Cloninger et al. (1993), who describe four dimensions of temperament: novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, and persistence, which are independently heritable and manifest early in life.”
BackgroundMethodThe molecular genetic architecture of human personality: beyond self-report questionnaires
Ebstein, R. P. (2006) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4001814 · Cited by 362 · see citing works
Gladstone, G. L., Parker, G. B., Mitchell, P. B., Malhi, G. S., Wilhelm, K. A., & Austin, M. (2004) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.8.1417 · Cited by 365 · see citing works
A potential role for thalamocingulate circuitry in human maternal behavior
Lorberbaum, J. P., Newman, J. D., Horwitz, A. R., Dubno, J. R., Lydiard, R. B., Hamner, M. B., Bohning, D. E., & George, M. S. (2002) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(01)01284-7 · Cited by 359 · see citing works
MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression
Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer‐Lindenberg, A. (2008) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 · Cited by 358 · see citing works
Dambrun, M., & Ricard, M. (2011) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0023059 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
Creative Innovation: Possible Brain Mechanisms
Heilman, K. M., Nadeau, S. E., & Beversdorf, D. Q. (2003) · Neurocase · doi:10.1076/neur.9.5.369.16553 · Cited by 354 · see citing works
Schizophrenia and smoking: Evidence for a common neurobiological basis?
Stassen, H. H., Bridler, R., H�gele, S., Hergersberg, M., Mehmann, B., Schinzel, A., Weisbrod, M., & Scharfetter, C. (2000) · American Journal of Medical Genetics · doi:10.1002/(sici)1096-8628(20000403)96:2 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Susceptibility to affect: a comparison of three personality taxonomies.
Zelenski, J. M., & Larsen, R. (1999) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/1467-6494.00072 · Cited by 347 · see citing works
Inspiration: Core Characteristics, Component Processes, Antecedents, and Function.
Thrash, T. M., & Elliot, A. J. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.6.957 · Cited by 455 · see citing works
de Moor, M. H. M., van den Berg, S. M., Verweij, K. J. H., Krueger, R. F., Luciano, M., Arias Vasquez, A., Matteson, L. K., Derringer, J., Esko, T., Amin, N., et al. (2015) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.0554 · Cited by 345 · see citing works
Five types of personality continuity in childhood and adolescence.
Fruyt, F. D., Bartels, M., Leeuwen, K. G. V., Clercq, B. J. D., Decuyper, M., & Mervielde, I. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.3.538 · Cited by 345 · see citing works
Fischer, S. F., Smith, G. T., & Cyders, M. (2008) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2008.09.001 · Cited by 333 · see citing works
Temperament, character, and personality disorders: etiologic, diagnostic, treatment issues
Švrakić, D. M., Draganić, S., Hill, K., Bayón, C., Przybeck, T. R., & Cloninger, C. R. (2002) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1034/j.1600-0447.2002.02196.x · Cited by 339 · see citing works
Self-citationA Practical Way to Diagnosis Personality Disorder: A Proposal
Cloninger, C. R. (2000) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi.2000.14.2.99 · Cited by 339 · see citing works
Self-citationEmotion Regulation in Current and Remitted Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Visted, E., Vøllestad, J., Nielsen, M. B., & Schanche, E. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00756 · Cited by 337 · see citing works
“Eight studies reported in total 10 trials using the subscale Harm Avoidance from the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI-HA; Cloninger et al., 1993), followed by one study reporting two trials involving the Avoidance subscale of the Need for Affect Scale (NAS-AVOIDANCE; Maio and Esses, 2001), one study reporting…”
MethodHariri, A. R., Drabant, E. M., & Weinberger, D. R. (2006) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.11.005 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
Eysenck, H. J. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.73.6.1224 · Cited by 337 · see citing works
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Predicting Dimensions of Personality Disorder From Domains and Facets of the Five Factor Model
Reynolds, S. K., & Clark, L. A. (2001) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/1467-6494.00142 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
Alexithymia and alcohol use disorders: A critical review
Thorberg, F. A., Young, R. M., Sullivan, K. A., & Lyvers, M. (2008) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2008.10.016 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
The Affective Neuroscience Personality Scales: Normative Data and Implications
Davis, K. L., Panksepp, J., & Normansell, L. (2003) · Neuropsychoanalysis · doi:10.1080/15294145.2003.10773410 · Cited by 337 · see citing works
Schmader, T., & Sedikides, C. (2017) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868317734080 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
Symptom fluctuation in eating disorders: correlates of diagnostic crossover
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A Hierarchical Analysis of 1,710 English Personality-Descriptive Adjectives.
Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., & Goldberg, L. R. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.5.707 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
Temperament and Character Inventory
Cloninger, C. R., Przybeck, T. R., Švrakić, D. M., & Wetzel, R. D. (1994) · PsycTESTS Dataset · doi:10.1037/t03902-000 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
Self-citationSanislow, C. A., Grilo, C. M., Morey, L. C., Bender, D. S., Skodol, A. E., Gunderson, J. G., Shea, M. T., Stout, R. L., Zanarini, M. C., & McGlashan, T. H. (2002) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.2.284 · Cited by 324 · see citing works
Can personality assessment predict future depression? A twelve-month follow-up of 631 subjects
Cloninger, C. R., Švrakić, D. M., & Przybeck, T. R. (2006) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2005.12.034 · Cited by 314 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- Cloninger, C. R.
- Affiliations
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- Corresponding author
- Cloninger, C. Robert
- ORCID
- Cloninger, C. Robert
- Venue
- Archives of General Psychiatry
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 1993-12-01
- Volume
- 50
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 975
- ISSN
- 0003-990X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1989844817
- Cited by
- 5,458
- References
- 81
- Citations by year
- 2026: 86 · 2025: 104 · 2024: 176 · 2023: 152 · 2022: 178 · 2021: 195 · 2020: 314 · 2019: 210 · 2018: 187 · 2017: 219 · 2016: 246 · 2015: 272 · 2014: 244 · 2013: 283 · 2012: 274
- FWCI
- 57.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Archives of General Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01aa007982-05, 5r01aa008028-05)
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (AA07982, AA08028)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH 31302)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Disorders and Psychopathology
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Keywords
- temperament, character, personality structure, personality development, Temperament and Character Inventory, self-concept, self-direction, cooperativeness, self-transcendence, novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, persistence, heritability, psychobiological model, personality assessment
- MeSH terms
- Character, Humans, Models, Biological, Models, Psychological, Personality Assessment, Personality Disorders, Personality Inventory, Psychometrics, Self Concept, Temperament, Reproducibility of Results
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