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Emotion regulation: affective, cognitive, and social consequences.
Open accessAbstract
One of life's great challenges is successfully regulating emotions. Do some emotion regulation strategies have more to recommend them than others? According to Gross's (1998, Review of General Psychology, 2, 271-299) process model of emotion regulation, strategies that act early in the emotion-generative process should have a different profile of consequences than strategies that act later on. This review focuses on two commonly used strategies for down-regulating emotion. The first, reappraisal, comes early in the emotion-generative process. It consists of changing the way a situation is construed so as to decrease its emotional impact. The second, suppression, comes later in the emotion-generative process. It consists of inhibiting the outward signs of inner feelings. Experimental and individual-difference studies find reappraisal is often more effective than suppression. Reappraisal decreases emotion experience and behavioral expression, and has no impact on memory. By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory. Suppression also increases physiological responding for suppressors and their social partners. This review concludes with a consideration of five important directions for future research on emotion regulation processes.
Checked 2026-10-05 · 1 reference not checked yet
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27 Own result · 22 Own interpretation · 13 No full text of the sources · 9 Sources not found · 6 No basis given · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Own method
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Also unlike suppression, reappraisal decreased disgust experience, whereas suppression had no effect on disgust experience.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 5 · plain
“It is noteworthy that whereas suppressing negative emotionexpressive behavior has no discernible impact on negative emotion experience ~ e.g., disgust, sadness, embarrassment ! , suppressing positive emotion-expressive behavior does have an impact on positive emotion experience ~ e.g., amusement ! .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, reappraisal had no impact on verbal memory.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Relations between suppression and negative emotion expression also followed expectations, with suppression being associated with lesser negative emotion expressive behavior.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reappraisal, by contrast, was associated with greater positive emotion experience and expression, and lesser negative emotion experience and expression.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reappraisal decreases emotion experience and behavioral expression, and has no impact on memory.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Also unlike suppression, reappraisal decreased disgust experience, whereas suppression had no effect on disgust experience.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5 · plain
“Reappraisal, by contrast, was associated with greater positive emotion experience and expression, and lesser negative emotion experience and expression.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we found that individuals who scored higher on either of the two suppression scales reported having worse memory that those who scored lower on these suppression scales”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory.”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · hedged
“As predicted, results indicated that suppression led to reliable decrements ~ compared to the control condition ! in both objective memory and memory confidence ratings.”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“As predicted, suppression participants performed less well on the verbal memory test than control participants.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · hedged
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They also performed worse on an objective memory test in which they were asked to recall events they had listed in a daily diary 1 week earlier.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Unlike suppression, however, reappraisal had no observable consequences in terms of sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular or electrodermal systems.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, suppression's effect on verbal memory was just as pronounced for the low-emotion as for the high-emotion slides, suggesting that it is the process of engaging in suppression that is cognitively costly, rather than the amount of emotion that is actually suppressed.”
plainn = 76- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 28
- Probably not a substantial claim. 6
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Table 1. Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression (Controlling for Neuroticism and Social Desirability)”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“| Self-reported | - .31 * | - .23 * | .09 |”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“| Objective | - .33 * | - .27 * | .05 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Findings regarding suppression and negative emotion experience were mixed, showing either no effects or positive effects, that is, the more individuals said they suppressed, the more negative emotion they said they felt.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In each case, suppression was associated with negative outcomes, whereas reappraisal was associated with positive outcomes.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas suppress participants showed greater increases in sympathetic activation than watch or reappraise subjects, these latter two groups did not differ from one another.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In each case, suppression was associated with negative outcomes, whereas reappraisal was associated with positive outcomes.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Gross and Levenson ~ 1997 ! found a suppression effect for amusement experience both in a context that predominantly elicited amusement ~ an amusement film ! and in a context in which there were lower levels of amusement ~ a sadness film that evoked a bit of secondary amusement ! .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gross and Levenson, 1997 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As expected, suppression decreased nonemotional behavior, and no differences were found between suppress and watch subjects for any of the physiological or experiential variables.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, however, emotions do not force us to respond in certain ways, they only make it more likely we will do so.”
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Individuals with schizophrenia have decreased emotion-expressive behavior compared with controls, but comparable levels of emotion experience”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kring & Neale, 1996 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“reappraisal seems to decrease negative emotion experience and expression while either having no impact or actually increasing positive emotion experience and expression”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These latter changes cohere theoretically, and can be described in terms of 'increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system.'”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such monitoring requires a continual outlay of cognitive resources, reducing the resources available for processing events so that they can later be remembered.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The logic of this comparative design hinges on the premise that whereas antecedent-focused forms of emotion regulation ~ such as reappraisal ! principally concern whether or not emotion response tendencies are triggered , response-focused strategies ~ such as suppression ! concern how emotion response tendencies are modulated once they have been triggered .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Suppression also was associated with poorer social support and lesser use of instrumental and emotional social support coping.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gross and John ~ in press !
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“reappraisal led to increased activation of lateral prefrontal regions important for cognitive control, and to decreases in activation of the amygdala and medial orbitofrontal cortex”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Ochsner, Bunge, Gross, & Gabrieli, 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Patients with schizophrenia also have well-characterized deficits in social functioning, and lead those interacting with them to feel uncomfortable”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Krause, Steimer, Sanger-Alt, & Wagner, 1989 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suppression seems to be a blunt instrument-one that decreases both negative and positive emotion-expressive behavior, thereby masking important social signals that would otherwise be available to social interaction partners”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the ongoing requirement of monitoring one's own facial expressions and vocal signals could distract the suppressing individual and make them less responsive to the emotional cues of their partner”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggest that whereas suppression is cognitively costly, reappraisal is not”
- Also stated in: § Concluding Comment · p. 9 · hedged
“Suppression also consumes cognitive resources, impairing memory for information presented during the emotion regulation period. Reappraisal, by contrast, appears to have no such cognitive consequences.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The suppression and reappraisal constructs measured as habitual individual differences are the same constructs manipulated in the laboratory experiments.
- Also stated in: § Concluding Comment · p. 9 · hedged
In the paper
“Similarly, Harris ~ 2001 ! has found that suppressing visible signs of embarrassment leads to enhanced blood pressure responses, but does not affect emotion experience reports.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harris, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Compared with the no soundtrack condition, participants who heard the soundtrack had lower skin conductance levels and more pleasant mood ratings.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lazarus & Alfert, 1964 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Theorists since Darwin ~ 1872 0 1998 ! have maintained that emotionexpressive behavior plays an important role in facilitating social interactions.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Campos, Mumme, Kermoian, & Campos, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“over half of the nonsubstance related Axis I clinical disorders and all of the Axis II personality disorders involve some form of emotion dysregulation”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gross & Levenson, 1997 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Individuals increase, maintain, and decrease negative and positive emotions ~ Parrott, 1993 ! .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Parrott, 1993
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Suppression also increases electrodermal responding and blood pressure, and decreases finger pulse amplitude, finger temperature, and pulse transit times.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gross, 1998a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gross & Levenson, 1993, 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This would make costly self-regulation unnecessary, leaving memory intact.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Taken together, these findings concerning suppression suggest decreases in positive emotion experience, but the physiological effects of suppression are not clear.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that the cognitive costs of suppression are due to the verbal demands of self-instructions issued during the course of suppression ~ e.g., 'I need to keep my face still' ! .”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
In the paper
“Diverse forms of self-regulation result in similar kinds of 'ego depletion,' which suggests that a common resource may be consumed in diverse forms of regulation”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suppression appears to have little impact on negative emotion experience, while decreasing positive emotion experience”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
“Suppression is a form of emotion regulation that requires selfmonitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Emotions involve coordinated behavioral, experiential, and physiological response tendencies.
“In either case, emotions call forth a coordinated set of behavioral, experiential, and physiological response tendencies that together influence how we respond to perceived challenges and opportunities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The personal meaning assigned to a situation strongly influences which experiential, behavioral, and physiological response tendencies are generated.
“The personal meaning that is assigned to the situation is crucial because it powerfully influences which experiential, behavioral, and physiological response tendencies will be generated in that particular situation.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The suppression and reappraisal constructs measured as habitual individual differences are the same constructs manipulated in the laboratory experiments.
“These individual-difference findings converge with the results of our experimental studies, and suggest that whereas suppression is cognitively costly, reappraisal is not.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source doesn’t support the claim as written.
In the citing paper
“In the last two decades clinicians have shown that mindfulness training can improve emotional disorders [74] and negative mood [75] and reduce physiological responses such as skin conductance [76] and amygdala activity [67].”
From Mindful emotion regulation: Exploring the neurocognitive mechanisms behind mindfulness (2015) · cites this paper as [74]
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“some models of emotions distinguish between antecedent-focused and response-focused emotion regulation strategies, based on the differential processing of internal and external emotional cues [65–68].”
From The empirical status of the "new wave" of cognitive behavioral therapy (2010) · cites this paper as [66]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“In addition, the recognition performance of emotional stimuli seems to be unaffected by emotional reappraisal (see [9,28] but see [29]), whereas suppression leads to impaired recognition [8,9].”
From Effects of differential strategies of emotion regulation (2019) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“We used similar instructions as Gross and colleagues to induce suppression (e.g., Gross & Levenson, 1997), and we replicated their earlier findings, suggesting that our experimental manipulation worked (Gross, 1998, 2002; Gross & Levenson, 1997).”
From How to handle anxiety: The effects of reappraisal, acceptance, and suppression strategies on anxious arousal (2009) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Laboratory based studies of cognitive change report psychological benefits from instructing participants to reappraise emotional stimuli or tasks in a manner designed to diminish personal identification and increase objectivity before the individuals encounter the stimuli or task”
From United we stand: emphasizing commonalities across cognitive-behavioral therapies. (2013) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“to achieve a common goal of behavioral adaptation, CBTs share change principles that target responding at different points along an emotional trajectory (Gross, 2002), including context engagement which can be seen as encompassing therapeutic processes of behavioral exposure and behavioral activation; attention change, which can be seen as encompassing therapeutic processes of attention training”
From United we stand: emphasizing commonalities across cognitive-behavioral therapies. (2013) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Within this framework, the process model differentiates emotion regulation strategies according to the time they intervene in the unfolding emotional response: we can distinguish between antecedent-focused strategies, which are used before the emotion response tendencies become active, and response-focused strategies, which are used once the response tendencies are generated [56,60,61].”
From Interoceptive Ability and Emotion Regulation in Mind–Body Interventions: An Integrative Review (2024) · cites this paper as [60]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reappraisal is an effective emotion regulation strategy (Gross, 2002), that has been demonstrated to facilitate emotion regulation in healthy and psychiatric cohorts.”
From Rt-fMRI neurofeedback-guided cognitive reappraisal training modulates amygdala responsivity in posttraumatic stress disorder (2020) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
In the citing paper
“Emotion regulation therapy (ERT) is one approach to combining CBTs and MBIs that addresses sequencing by targeting the refractory negative emotionality and resulting negative self-referentiality that characterizes distress disorders [75] by first addressing attention change techniques”
From All together now: utilizing common functional change principles to unify cognitive behavioral and mindfulness-based therapies (2019) · cites this paper as [81]
In the citing paper
“Taken together, this suggests that the generation of compassion in response to distressing situations is distinct from other emotion regulation strategies, such as suppression or reappraisal, which involve an active downregulation of negative affect (Gross, 2002).”
From Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training (2014) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
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Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Social Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 7
“We asked unacquainted pairs of women to watch an upsetting film, and then discuss their reactions ~ Butler, Egloff, Wilhelm, Smith, & Gross, 2002 ! .”
§ REFERENCES · p. 10
“Butler, E. A., Egloff, B., Wilhelm, F. H., Smith, N. C., & Gross, J. J. ~ 2001 ! . The social consequences of emotion regulation . Manuscript under review.”
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Ramasawmy, P., Antal, A., Gamboa, O. L., Petzke, F. W., & Kästner, A. (2025) · Clinical Journal of Pain · doi:10.1097/ajp.0000000000001319 · Cited by 2
“Gross ’ 126 process model of ER intends to organize these processes, considering the multidimensionality and temporal dynamics of emotions.”
Lu, Y., Gu, J., Xie, B., & Zhou, W. (2025) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajsp.70046 · Cited by 2
Role of left lateral prefrontal cortex in positive emotion regulation: Insights from dyslexia
Palser, E. R., Morris, N., Veziris, C. R., Holley, S. R., Wallman-Jones, A., Roy, A. R. K., Licata, A. E., Voges, M., Watson, C., Mandelli, M. L., et al. (2025) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-025-01335-8 · Cited by 2
Tavolucci, S., Filosa, L., Sommovigo, V., Rosa, V., Alivernini, F., Baiocco, R., Borghi, A. M., Chirico, A., Fini, C., Palombi, T., et al. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13162047 · Cited by 1
“On the contrary, older people have been seen to use more reappraisal processes [109,110], a strategy considered more adaptive and focused on cognitively reframing a situation in order to reduce its emotional intensity.”
Akintunde, T. Y., Isangha, S. O., & Olurin, T. K. (2025) · Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10560-025-01041-x · Cited by 1
“Emotional dissonance theory further suggests that a mismatch between reappraised cognitions and authentic emotional experi - ences can generate internal conflict, leading to emotional dissonance (Gross, 1998 , 2002 ).”
Expressive suppression moderates the relationship between brain volume and mental health
Delgado-Herrera, M., Arce, B. I., Olalde-Mathieu, V. E., Licea-Haquet, G., & Reyes-Aguilar, A. (2025) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2025.08.040 · Cited by 1
Bitan, S., Hasson‐Ohayon, I., & Daches, S. (2025) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2025.2550745 · Cited by 1
Li, Z., Huang, K., Ding, X., Wang, T., Zhou, S.-Y., Han, Y., Chen, Z., Wan, X., Hao, X., Meng, Y., et al. (2025) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-025-10654-6 · Cited by 2
The relationship between equanimity and postural stability
Hofmann, P., Schroter, F. A., Jost, L., Siebertz, M., & Jansen, P. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03322-7 · Cited by 2
“Farb et al. [20] state that the alteration of emotional interoceptive signals is often addressed in emotional and psychological theories through strategies such as suppression, distraction, or reappraisal [21].”
Savarese, G., Stornaiuolo, G., Vertullo, A., Amato, C., & Carpinelli, L. (2025) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci15090961 · Cited by 2
“This distinction is crucial not only for psychological theory but also for the training of healthcare professionals, who must be able to recognize their own emotions, integrate them into the helping relationship, and regulate themselves adaptively when faced with critical events [5].”
Luo, R., Ding, R., Wang, X., Zhou, W., & Hou, Y. (2025) · The Arts in Psychotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.aip.2025.102361 · Cited by 2
How do sequential message stimuli shape consumer confidence? A longitudinal perspective
Kong, D., & Ha, H. (2025) · Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing · doi:10.1108/jrim-11-2024-0520 · Cited by 1
Önder, Ö. K., Bilgin, Ü., & Tıngaz, E. O. (2025) · Ankara Üniversitesi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Yüksekokulu SPORMETRE Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.33689/spormetre.1538907 · Cited by 1
Verma, A., Islam, S. N., Moghaddam, V., & Anwar, A. (2024) · Australian Conference on Human-Computer Interaction (OzCHI) · doi:10.1145/3726986.3727034 · Cited by 1
“Research studies have demonstrated that self-reflection can provide individuals with a better understanding of their emotions, reduce impulsive reactions, and lead to more intentional decision-making [12], [34].”
Huang, X., Zhang, X., Chen, Q., Hu, Y., Zhao, X., & Zhao, L. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-24539-6 · Cited by 3
Pang, G., & Acheson, K. (2025) · Journal of Transformative Education · doi:10.1177/15413446251384856 · Cited by 1
“This evidence resonates with the dif fi culty of rationalizing oneself or others towards an attitudinal change, as opposed to driving beliefs and behaviors via emotional motivations (Gross, 2002).”
Changing Views of Sex Offender Policies: A Counterevidence Based Intervention
Reynolds, J. J., & Estrada-Reynolds, V. C. (2025) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2025.2572627 · Cited by 1
“Reappraisal is a strategy to minimize an emotional response and involves reframing the meaning of the emotion provoking stimuli (Gross, 2002; Lerner et al., 2015).”
The effect of sensation seeking on physical exercise: A moderated mediation model
Yang, C., & Gao, D. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105848 · Cited by 1
Wang, X., Zheng, C., & Wu, Y. (2025) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.70395 · Cited by 2
“…2012), individuals often experience negative emotions when receiving negative or unexpected feedback, prompting them to adopt suppressive strategies to reduce such experiences (Gross 2002, 2015), although these strategies may also diminish positive emotional experiences (Fernandes and Tone 2021).”
Lan, J., Waheed, M., & Bidin, R. B. H. (2025) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440251374604 · Cited by 1
“The term affective refers to anything related to emotions, moods, and feelings (Gross, 2002).”
Jonathan, J. G., & Zhu, F. (2025) · International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research · doi:10.1108/ijebr-05-2024-0560 · Cited by 1
Han, X., Wang, C., Huang, Z., Wu, J., Li, X., & You, J. (2025) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviour · doi:10.1111/sltb.70064 · Cited by 1
Ahammed, B., Alam, K., Hoque, Z., & Keramat, S. A. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.120679 · Cited by 3
VR Calm+: Furry Stress Ball as a Haptic Modality for Relaxation in Virtual Reality
Zhang, H., Li, X., Zhou, X., & Fu, X. (2025) · IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality Adjunct (ISMAR-Adjunct) · doi:10.1109/ismar-adjunct68609.2025.00128 · Cited by 2
“Emotion regulation is central to well-being and daily functioning [14, 3].”
Wagenblast, F., Seibt, R., Rieger, M. A., & Steinhilber, B. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-28090-7 · Cited by 1
Laughter regulation in solitary and social contexts varies across emotion regulation strategies
Mitschke, V., Ziereis, A. C., Manivasagam, S., & Schacht, A. (2025) · Communications Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44271-025-00368-6 · Cited by 1
“…one ’ s internal state; cognitive reappraisal works by altering the emotional meaning of a stimulus, potentially modulating both experience and expression; and distraction disengages attention from the emotional source, often dampening internal experience more strongly than expressive behavior 13 .”
Konuk, B. Ç., & Şahin, M. (2025) · Current Research in Social Sciences · doi:10.30613/curesosc.1586969 · Cited by 1
Kumar, R., Talaei, N. M., Kumar, A., et al. (2025) · Decision Sciences · doi:10.1111/deci.70019 · Cited by 1
Punton, G., Ellis, J. G., Jensen, E., Malby, C., Sharif, F., Smailes, D., Turnbull, M. M., & Moseley, P. (2025) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.70259 · Cited by 3
“…self-report measures of negative affect (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, negative subscale; Watson et al. 1988), intrusive thoughts (Thought Suppression Inventory; Rassin 2003), and emotion regulation (Emotion Regulation Questionnaire; Gross 2002) were also administered at each timepoint.”
Xu, Y., Lu, A., Li, X., Xue, S., Ao, L., Chen, W., & Chen, J. (2025) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-025-02303-8 · Cited by 1
“Emotion regulation is the ability to manage and adaptively cope with emotional experiences, which is a key skill for psychological health and social adjustment during adolescence (Gross, 2002).”
Rugendo, E., Lyimo, G. S., Daya, R., Githinji, M., Kashamba, K., Njoki, F., Yusufu, I., Osborn, T., Chase, R. P., Sando, M., et al. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03837-z · Cited by 1
“Some young people respond to these challenges by strengthening their emotion regulation (ER) skills, whereas others experience ER difficulties [12, 13], which are associated with a greater risk of developing mental health conditions [14, 15].”
The unseen threads: reweaving fashion's future with emotional science and methodological innovation
Chirico, A. (2025) · Frontiers in Sustainability · doi:10.3389/frsus.2025.1686093 · Cited by 2
Francesco, S. D., Caselli, G., Giani, L., Ocera, A., Scaini, S., Buattini, M., Piron, R., Fanfoni, M., Giuri, S., Nordahl, H. M., et al. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.121062 · Cited by 1
Zhang, H., Liu, Z., Wu, Y., Yuan, J., Li, G., Ding, Z., & Hu, B. (2025) · Information Processing & Management · doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2025.104575 · Cited by 1
Lloyd, R., Izad, T., Nazmifar, M., Walkon, L., & Mohiyeddini, C. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1707795 · Cited by 1
“Gross’s process model of emotion regulation provides a theoretical framework for this connection, as it emphasizes how adaptive cognitive strategies shape emotional responses to stressors (Gross, 2002).”
Just Not That Into You: Experiences of Indifference Toward a Romantic Partner
Đurić, M., Righetti, F., Zoppolat, G., & Schneider, I. K. (2026) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672251410278 · Cited by 1
郑, 威. (2026) · Advances in Psychology · doi:10.12677/ap.2026.161022 · Cited by 1
ghalandarzadeh, Z., & Tehrani, S. P. (2026) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-08797-6 · Cited by 1
“ER is not an isolated process; it involves managing emotions, thoughts, behaviors, and impulses, especially in stressful situations (Gross, 2002 ).”
林, 婉. (2026) · Advances in Psychology · doi:10.12677/ap.2026.161042 · Cited by 1
Navigating Metacognitive Disorientation: Medical Students' Experiences of Complex Tasks
Zepf, J., Koltz, E., Chinai, A., Varpio, L., Hoffman, M., & Merkebu, J. (2026) · The Clinical Teacher · doi:10.1111/tct.70339 · Cited by 2
“For instance, an individual's feelings impact metacognitive control; subjective monitoring—and the emotions experienced during that mon-itoring—drives the regulation (or control) of one's behaviour [38, 40–42].”
Turan, M. E., Usta, F., Alkhulayfi, A. M. A., & Yıldırım, M. (2026) · Asia Pacific Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/21507686.2026.2620740 · Cited by 3
“On the other hand, expressive suppression is a response-focused strategy, where individuals inhibit or control the outward expression of their emotions (Gross, 2002).”
The affective style of politics: Evidence from cross‐country surveys
Nielsen, J. H., & Mønster, D. (2026) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.70094 · Cited by 1
“Hence, the costly self-regulation among concealing individuals is at the expense of cognition and memory (Gross, 2002).”
InfluentialDurak, H. Y., SARI, H. Y., Dilmaç, B., & Durak, A. (2026) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-026-00640-6 · Cited by 2
“In addition, high self-control helps individuals manage negative emotional reactions more effectively and develop posi - tive emotional reactions (Gross, 2002).”
Teachers’ emotions in the context of culturally conflicted secondary school sex education in England
Mukoro, J., Setty, E., & Hemming, P. (2026) · Pastoral Care in Education · doi:10.1080/02643944.2026.2620596 · Cited by 2
Huang, D., Liu, C. W., Lian, C., et al. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1713079 · Cited by 1
“This age pattern is consistent with emotion-regulation theory (Gross, 2002), which suggests that older adults selectively favor experiences that support positive affect.”
Niu, L., Toulopoulou, T., Song, X., Li, Q., Dai, H., Chen, K., Zhang, J., Chen, X., Chen, Z., Wang, X., et al. (2026) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291725103097 · Cited by 1
“Emotion suppression, a response-focused strategy prevalent in various mental disorders, is characterized by a decrease in emotional expression behaviors without alterations to the underlying negative emotional experience (Gross, 2002).”
A Systematic Review on Learning-Related Emotion Regulation: Academic Emotions and their Regulation
Xu, L., & Muis, K. R. (2026) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-026-10123-w · Cited by 4
Pu, J., Huang, L., Li, Y., & Zhong, Q. (2026) · BMC Women s Health · doi:10.1186/s12905-026-04342-0 · Cited by 1
“This can be understood through Emotion Regulation Theory [46], which suggests that individuals with high disease activity and lower social support may experience heightened emotional distress, leading to reproductive anxiety.”
Li, S., Aggül, Y. G., & Horn, I. S. (2026) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2026.102957 · Cited by 1
Alfayez, H. M. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1738432 · Cited by 1
“Emotion regulation refers to the processes - cognitive, behavioral, and physiological-through which individuals influence the intensity, duration, and expression of their emotions (Gross, 2002; Bridges et al., 2004).”
Guo, W., Zhao, C., & Zhang, W. (2026) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2026.112193 · Cited by 1
When workplace incivility arises: can knowledge sharing still survive?
Zhao, Y., Zeng, Z., Song, T., Sun, L., & Li, C. (2026) · Journal of Knowledge Management · doi:10.1108/jkm-09-2025-1347 · Cited by 1
Du, J., Jiang, C., & Qiu, C. (2026) · Aslib Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1108/ajim-05-2025-0277 · Cited by 1
Neural evidence for exercise-driven emotional stability via cognitive regulation mechanisms
Wang, X., Zhou, C., & Liu, T. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1775023 · Cited by 1
“Blocks were presented in a fixed order (WNeu→WNeg→CR→ES) to avoid carryover effects on the neutral condition (Gross, 2002).”
Fryer, R. P., Mallett, C. J., Kirby, J. N., & Kashdan, T. B. (2026) · International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching · doi:10.1177/17479541261430313 · Cited by 1
“In the present study, we found that coaches described using antecedent-focused regulatory strategies (e.g., simulations and contingencies) to proactively in fl uence the emotions experienced by self and others during competition 64 and their subsequent readiness to behave with consistent composure.”
Imhof, J., Raschle, N. M., Wenderoth, N., & Meissner, S. N. (2026) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-026-03937-3 · Cited by 1
“…(i.e., emotional reactivity [38 – 40]), there is fi rst evidence that LC-NA activity indexed by pupil dilation, may be re fl ective of regulatory control [40], i.e., the modulation of response intensity, duration, or extent when facing an emotional situation (i.e., emotion regulation [41, 42]).”
Screens and strategies: Testing interventions for adolescents‘ digital self-regulation competence
Büttner, K. J., Büttner, O. B., & Mau, G. (2026) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2026.101029 · Cited by 2
Mood modulations of emotional word processing: A predictive perspective view of EEG data
Kopaeva, E., Blomberg, J., & Roll, M. (2026) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-025-01394-x · Cited by 2
“…score might be achieved through changes to the mood-induction procedure, for example, using negative stimuli with a greater negativity from other pre-normed datasets, or by explicitly instructing participants to engage with the stimuli, based on the principles of emotion regulation (Gross, 2002).”
Liu, R., Fu, C., Yan, Z., Xu, Z., Duan, B., & Zhang, X. (2026) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-026-09325-w · Cited by 1
“…significantly mediate the link between expressive suppression and TSW. Expres - sive suppression requires teachers to consciously inhibit the outward display of emotions (Gross, 2002), which, although effective for maintaining short-term interpersonal harmony, may hinder long-term emotional growth.”
Karayaman, S., & Deni̇z, A. (2026) · Cogent Social Sciences · doi:10.1080/23311886.2026.2650012 · Cited by 2
Fang, L., Zhu, Y., Li, J., Fang, C., Xu, Y., & Wang, S. J. (2026) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2026.2645444 · Cited by 3
Patterns of Ongoing Thought Are Associated With Emotion Regulation and Negative Affect in Daily Life
Wang, R., Bas, L. M., Janet, R., Smallwood, J., Xu, Y., Morawetz, C., & Tusche, A. (2026) · Affective Science · doi:10.1007/s42761-026-00355-y · Cited by 2
“…influences decision-making (Grecucci et al., 2013 ; Grecucci & Sanfey, 2014 ; Morawetz et al., 2019 , 2020 ) and behavior (Sheppes, 2020 ), but also directly impacts both mental and physical health (Aldao et al., 2010 ; Gross, 2002 ; Gross & John, 2003 ; Hu et al., 2014 ; Rammensee et al., 2023 ).”
Yan, C., Wang, Y., Liang, Z., Sun, H., Zhang, T., & Wang, B. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1738521 · Cited by 2
“From an emotion regulation perspective, persistent negative emotional states may undermine individuals’ ability to maintain positive evaluations of their life circumstances and psychological functioning (Gross, 2002).”
Habitual Aerobic Exercise Is Associated with Reduced Negative Emotional Elicitation: An fNIRS Study
Wang, X., & Zhou, C. (2026) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci16040409 · Cited by 1
“The WNeu block was always presented first to avoid emotional carry-over effects, followed by the WNeg block [41].”
The Psychology of Language Teachers
Smid, D., & Mercer, S. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009513852 · Cited by 1
How aesthetic education enhances psychological resilience: the mediating role of emotion regulation
Zhu, Q., Dong, Y., & Chen, H. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1802363 · Cited by 1
“Emotion regulation theory is primarily grounded in Gross’s process model (Gross, 2002), while also being understood as a context-sensitive and flexible regulatory system across different domains (Bonanno et al., 2024; Isaacowitz and English, 2024), including educational settings (Aldrup et al., 2024;…”
ILDIZ, G. İ., & Ayhan, A. B. (2026) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.70169 · Cited by 1
The Cognitive Cost of Brain Rot: Indirect Effects on Depression via Burnout, Stress, and Anxiety
Batmaz, H., Özsağır, C. B., & Şekkeli, H. A. (2026) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941261450856 · Cited by 2
Galán, M., del Castillo‐López, Á. G., Ruiz-Fuster, F., & Pineda, D. (2026) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-026-04872-0 · Cited by 1
“Strategies such as cognitive reap-praisal and suppression have been extensively studied; while reappraisal may buffer against emotional distress, suppression is more closely associated with maladaptive outcomes and increased vulnerability to psycho-pathology [9, 10].”
Li, Y., Guo, Q., & Jia, L. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1821570 · Cited by 1
“According to emotion regulation theory, when individuals experience negative emotions and stress, they often employ specific coping strategies to alleviate these unpleasant feelings (Gross, 2002).”
Çoban, S. S. Y., & Yüzbaşı, D. V. (2026) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-026-09573-w · Cited by 1
“While existing research on late adolescence and young adulthood predominantly emphasizes intrapersonal emotion regulation processes (Gross, 2002; John & Gross, 2004; Richards & Gross, 2000; Spangler & Zimmermann, 1999), there is comparatively limited attention to IER within adult psychological…”
Zhang, L., Chen, Y., Shuai, Q., & Zhang, Y. (2026) · Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing · doi:10.1108/jrim-10-2025-0657 · Cited by 2
Li, P., & Gao, X. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1824427 · Cited by 1
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Bottoms, H. C. (2014) · Lincoln (University of Nebraska) · Cited by 1
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“Dies ist insofern von Interesse, als in den letzten Jahren Störungen der Emotionsregulation vermehrt Aufmerksamkeit erfahren haben und eine rege Forschungstätigkeit angestoßen wurde (Gross 2002).”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Gross, J. J.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gross, James J.
- ORCID
- Gross, James J.
- Venue
- Psychophysiology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2002-05
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 281-291
- ISSN
- 0048-5772 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8986
- OpenAlex
- W2128126978
- Cited by
- 4,890
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 341 · 2025: 492 · 2024: 315 · 2023: 314 · 2022: 321 · 2021: 315 · 2020: 273 · 2019: 267 · 2018: 276 · 2017: 254 · 2016: 226 · 2015: 232 · 2014: 233 · 2013: 228 · 2012: 179
- FWCI
- 5.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychophysiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH 58147)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- emotion regulation, cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, process model of emotion regulation, emotional experience, emotional expression, memory impairment, individual differences
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Cognition, Emotions, Humans, Psychophysiology, Social Behavior
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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