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Emotion regulation: affective, cognitive, and social consequences.
Open accessAbstract
One of life's great challenges is successfully regulating emotions. Do some emotion regulation strategies have more to recommend them than others? According to Gross's (1998, Review of General Psychology, 2, 271-299) process model of emotion regulation, strategies that act early in the emotion-generative process should have a different profile of consequences than strategies that act later on. This review focuses on two commonly used strategies for down-regulating emotion. The first, reappraisal, comes early in the emotion-generative process. It consists of changing the way a situation is construed so as to decrease its emotional impact. The second, suppression, comes later in the emotion-generative process. It consists of inhibiting the outward signs of inner feelings. Experimental and individual-difference studies find reappraisal is often more effective than suppression. Reappraisal decreases emotion experience and behavioral expression, and has no impact on memory. By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory. Suppression also increases physiological responding for suppressors and their social partners. This review concludes with a consideration of five important directions for future research on emotion regulation processes.
Checked 2026-10-05 · 1 reference not checked yet
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27 Own result · 22 Own interpretation · 13 No full text of the sources · 9 Sources not found · 6 No basis given · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Own method
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Also unlike suppression, reappraisal decreased disgust experience, whereas suppression had no effect on disgust experience.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 5 · plain
“It is noteworthy that whereas suppressing negative emotionexpressive behavior has no discernible impact on negative emotion experience ~ e.g., disgust, sadness, embarrassment ! , suppressing positive emotion-expressive behavior does have an impact on positive emotion experience ~ e.g., amusement ! .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, reappraisal had no impact on verbal memory.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Relations between suppression and negative emotion expression also followed expectations, with suppression being associated with lesser negative emotion expressive behavior.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reappraisal, by contrast, was associated with greater positive emotion experience and expression, and lesser negative emotion experience and expression.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reappraisal decreases emotion experience and behavioral expression, and has no impact on memory.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Also unlike suppression, reappraisal decreased disgust experience, whereas suppression had no effect on disgust experience.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5 · plain
“Reappraisal, by contrast, was associated with greater positive emotion experience and expression, and lesser negative emotion experience and expression.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we found that individuals who scored higher on either of the two suppression scales reported having worse memory that those who scored lower on these suppression scales”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory.”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · hedged
“As predicted, results indicated that suppression led to reliable decrements ~ compared to the control condition ! in both objective memory and memory confidence ratings.”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“As predicted, suppression participants performed less well on the verbal memory test than control participants.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · hedged
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They also performed worse on an objective memory test in which they were asked to recall events they had listed in a daily diary 1 week earlier.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Unlike suppression, however, reappraisal had no observable consequences in terms of sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular or electrodermal systems.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, suppression's effect on verbal memory was just as pronounced for the low-emotion as for the high-emotion slides, suggesting that it is the process of engaging in suppression that is cognitively costly, rather than the amount of emotion that is actually suppressed.”
plainn = 76- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 28
- Probably not a substantial claim. 6
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Table 1. Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression (Controlling for Neuroticism and Social Desirability)”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“| Self-reported | - .31 * | - .23 * | .09 |”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“| Objective | - .33 * | - .27 * | .05 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Findings regarding suppression and negative emotion experience were mixed, showing either no effects or positive effects, that is, the more individuals said they suppressed, the more negative emotion they said they felt.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In each case, suppression was associated with negative outcomes, whereas reappraisal was associated with positive outcomes.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas suppress participants showed greater increases in sympathetic activation than watch or reappraise subjects, these latter two groups did not differ from one another.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In each case, suppression was associated with negative outcomes, whereas reappraisal was associated with positive outcomes.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Gross and Levenson ~ 1997 ! found a suppression effect for amusement experience both in a context that predominantly elicited amusement ~ an amusement film ! and in a context in which there were lower levels of amusement ~ a sadness film that evoked a bit of secondary amusement ! .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gross and Levenson, 1997 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As expected, suppression decreased nonemotional behavior, and no differences were found between suppress and watch subjects for any of the physiological or experiential variables.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, however, emotions do not force us to respond in certain ways, they only make it more likely we will do so.”
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Individuals with schizophrenia have decreased emotion-expressive behavior compared with controls, but comparable levels of emotion experience”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kring & Neale, 1996 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“reappraisal seems to decrease negative emotion experience and expression while either having no impact or actually increasing positive emotion experience and expression”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These latter changes cohere theoretically, and can be described in terms of 'increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system.'”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such monitoring requires a continual outlay of cognitive resources, reducing the resources available for processing events so that they can later be remembered.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The logic of this comparative design hinges on the premise that whereas antecedent-focused forms of emotion regulation ~ such as reappraisal ! principally concern whether or not emotion response tendencies are triggered , response-focused strategies ~ such as suppression ! concern how emotion response tendencies are modulated once they have been triggered .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Suppression also was associated with poorer social support and lesser use of instrumental and emotional social support coping.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gross and John ~ in press !
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“reappraisal led to increased activation of lateral prefrontal regions important for cognitive control, and to decreases in activation of the amygdala and medial orbitofrontal cortex”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Ochsner, Bunge, Gross, & Gabrieli, 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Patients with schizophrenia also have well-characterized deficits in social functioning, and lead those interacting with them to feel uncomfortable”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Krause, Steimer, Sanger-Alt, & Wagner, 1989 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suppression seems to be a blunt instrument-one that decreases both negative and positive emotion-expressive behavior, thereby masking important social signals that would otherwise be available to social interaction partners”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the ongoing requirement of monitoring one's own facial expressions and vocal signals could distract the suppressing individual and make them less responsive to the emotional cues of their partner”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggest that whereas suppression is cognitively costly, reappraisal is not”
- Also stated in: § Concluding Comment · p. 9 · hedged
“Suppression also consumes cognitive resources, impairing memory for information presented during the emotion regulation period. Reappraisal, by contrast, appears to have no such cognitive consequences.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The suppression and reappraisal constructs measured as habitual individual differences are the same constructs manipulated in the laboratory experiments.
- Also stated in: § Concluding Comment · p. 9 · hedged
In the paper
“Similarly, Harris ~ 2001 ! has found that suppressing visible signs of embarrassment leads to enhanced blood pressure responses, but does not affect emotion experience reports.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harris, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Compared with the no soundtrack condition, participants who heard the soundtrack had lower skin conductance levels and more pleasant mood ratings.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lazarus & Alfert, 1964 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Theorists since Darwin ~ 1872 0 1998 ! have maintained that emotionexpressive behavior plays an important role in facilitating social interactions.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Campos, Mumme, Kermoian, & Campos, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“over half of the nonsubstance related Axis I clinical disorders and all of the Axis II personality disorders involve some form of emotion dysregulation”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gross & Levenson, 1997 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Individuals increase, maintain, and decrease negative and positive emotions ~ Parrott, 1993 ! .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Parrott, 1993
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Suppression also increases electrodermal responding and blood pressure, and decreases finger pulse amplitude, finger temperature, and pulse transit times.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gross, 1998a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gross & Levenson, 1993, 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This would make costly self-regulation unnecessary, leaving memory intact.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Taken together, these findings concerning suppression suggest decreases in positive emotion experience, but the physiological effects of suppression are not clear.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that the cognitive costs of suppression are due to the verbal demands of self-instructions issued during the course of suppression ~ e.g., 'I need to keep my face still' ! .”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
In the paper
“Diverse forms of self-regulation result in similar kinds of 'ego depletion,' which suggests that a common resource may be consumed in diverse forms of regulation”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suppression appears to have little impact on negative emotion experience, while decreasing positive emotion experience”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
“Suppression is a form of emotion regulation that requires selfmonitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Emotions involve coordinated behavioral, experiential, and physiological response tendencies.
“In either case, emotions call forth a coordinated set of behavioral, experiential, and physiological response tendencies that together influence how we respond to perceived challenges and opportunities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The personal meaning assigned to a situation strongly influences which experiential, behavioral, and physiological response tendencies are generated.
“The personal meaning that is assigned to the situation is crucial because it powerfully influences which experiential, behavioral, and physiological response tendencies will be generated in that particular situation.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The suppression and reappraisal constructs measured as habitual individual differences are the same constructs manipulated in the laboratory experiments.
“These individual-difference findings converge with the results of our experimental studies, and suggest that whereas suppression is cognitively costly, reappraisal is not.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source doesn’t support the claim as written.
In the citing paper
“In the last two decades clinicians have shown that mindfulness training can improve emotional disorders [74] and negative mood [75] and reduce physiological responses such as skin conductance [76] and amygdala activity [67].”
From Mindful emotion regulation: Exploring the neurocognitive mechanisms behind mindfulness (2015) · cites this paper as [74]
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“some models of emotions distinguish between antecedent-focused and response-focused emotion regulation strategies, based on the differential processing of internal and external emotional cues [65–68].”
From The empirical status of the "new wave" of cognitive behavioral therapy (2010) · cites this paper as [66]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“In addition, the recognition performance of emotional stimuli seems to be unaffected by emotional reappraisal (see [9,28] but see [29]), whereas suppression leads to impaired recognition [8,9].”
From Effects of differential strategies of emotion regulation (2019) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“We used similar instructions as Gross and colleagues to induce suppression (e.g., Gross & Levenson, 1997), and we replicated their earlier findings, suggesting that our experimental manipulation worked (Gross, 1998, 2002; Gross & Levenson, 1997).”
From How to handle anxiety: The effects of reappraisal, acceptance, and suppression strategies on anxious arousal (2009) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Laboratory based studies of cognitive change report psychological benefits from instructing participants to reappraise emotional stimuli or tasks in a manner designed to diminish personal identification and increase objectivity before the individuals encounter the stimuli or task”
From United we stand: emphasizing commonalities across cognitive-behavioral therapies. (2013) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“to achieve a common goal of behavioral adaptation, CBTs share change principles that target responding at different points along an emotional trajectory (Gross, 2002), including context engagement which can be seen as encompassing therapeutic processes of behavioral exposure and behavioral activation; attention change, which can be seen as encompassing therapeutic processes of attention training”
From United we stand: emphasizing commonalities across cognitive-behavioral therapies. (2013) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Within this framework, the process model differentiates emotion regulation strategies according to the time they intervene in the unfolding emotional response: we can distinguish between antecedent-focused strategies, which are used before the emotion response tendencies become active, and response-focused strategies, which are used once the response tendencies are generated [56,60,61].”
From Interoceptive Ability and Emotion Regulation in Mind–Body Interventions: An Integrative Review (2024) · cites this paper as [60]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reappraisal is an effective emotion regulation strategy (Gross, 2002), that has been demonstrated to facilitate emotion regulation in healthy and psychiatric cohorts.”
From Rt-fMRI neurofeedback-guided cognitive reappraisal training modulates amygdala responsivity in posttraumatic stress disorder (2020) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
In the citing paper
“Emotion regulation therapy (ERT) is one approach to combining CBTs and MBIs that addresses sequencing by targeting the refractory negative emotionality and resulting negative self-referentiality that characterizes distress disorders [75] by first addressing attention change techniques”
From All together now: utilizing common functional change principles to unify cognitive behavioral and mindfulness-based therapies (2019) · cites this paper as [81]
In the citing paper
“Taken together, this suggests that the generation of compassion in response to distressing situations is distinct from other emotion regulation strategies, such as suppression or reappraisal, which involve an active downregulation of negative affect (Gross, 2002).”
From Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training (2014) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
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Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Social Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 7
“We asked unacquainted pairs of women to watch an upsetting film, and then discuss their reactions ~ Butler, Egloff, Wilhelm, Smith, & Gross, 2002 ! .”
§ REFERENCES · p. 10
“Butler, E. A., Egloff, B., Wilhelm, F. H., Smith, N. C., & Gross, J. J. ~ 2001 ! . The social consequences of emotion regulation . Manuscript under review.”
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Items 3,001–3,100 of 4,870
Colombo, B., Fusi, G., & Christopher, K. B. (2024) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare12020163 · Cited by 4
“Suppression is a commonly used mechanism to manage a negative experience but it has been reported to be rather ineffective and to lead to memory distortion [80].”
BackgroundMehraban, R., Nasab, S. D. H., & Vafa, M. A. (2022) · doi:10.61838/kman.jayps.3.3.1 · Cited by 3
Liu, J., Lu, T., Li, Y., et al. (2024) · BMC Nursing · doi:10.1186/s12912-024-01879-z · Cited by 3
“Some studies [18, 19] show that positive learning attitude helps cross-professional nursing students master professional knowledge, integrate into team work more quickly and improve critical thinking of nursing students.”
BackgroundThe role of emotion recognition in reappraisal affordances
Moyal, N., Glebov-Russinov, I., Henik, A., & Anholt, G. E. (2024) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-024-01966-5 · Cited by 3
“One of the most studied strategies to regulate emotions adaptively is reappraisal, which entails a cognitive change in the way one perceives an emotional situation, in order to change or decrease the intensity of the emotional state (Gross, 2002 ).”
Are you how you eat? Aspects of self-awareness in eating disorders
Coutinho, B. D. M. C., Pariz, C. G., Krahe, T. E., & Mograbi, D. C. (2024) · Personality Neuroscience · doi:10.1017/pen.2024.2 · Cited by 3
Durak, H. (2024) · Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies · doi:10.29333/ejecs/2146 · Cited by 3
Carré, A., Shankland, R., Guillaume, P., Duclos, J., El-Jor, C., Sonia Pellissier, A., & Flaudias, V. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1261994 · Cited by 6
“These difficulties occur at the affective, cognitive, and social levels, ranging from emotional awareness to regulatory strategies (Gross, 2002; Barlow et al., 2004; Boden and Thompson, 2015).”
BackgroundSalamat, M., Moradi, A., Hasani, J., Farahimanesh, S., Ayatmehr, F., Yavarzadeh, H., & Jobson, L. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-68709-9 · Cited by 3
On Being Open in Closed Places: Vulnerability and Violence in Inpatient Psychiatric Settings
Brooks, C. P., Johnston, I., & Gilson, E. C. (2024) · Nursing Philosophy · doi:10.1111/nup.70005 · Cited by 3
“A systematic review found that repeated emotional suppression was related to negative physiological outcomes and less experience of positive affect, as opposed to deeper processing strategies such as emotional reappraisal (Gross 2002, p. 20).”
Reducing the Influence of Time Pressure on Risky Choice
Jiang, Y., Huang, P., & Qian, X. (2024) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000626 · Cited by 2
Haudry, S., Turpin, A., Landeau, B., Mézenge, F., Delarue, M., Hébert, O., Marchant, N. L., Klimecki, O., Collette, F., Gonneaud, J., et al. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-79687-3 · Cited by 3
“…psycho-affective composite was computed by averaging the standardized scores of the Compassion for Self Short-form 60 (SCS-SF), the cognitive reappraisal subscale of the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire 61 (ERQ), the Satisfaction with life Questionnaire 62 and the Ryff 7 item Well-Being Scale 63 .”
Liu, Y., Sang, B., & Chai, X. (2024) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs14121184 · Cited by 3
“Emotional regulation, which is closely linked to individual mental health [1–3], is the process by which individuals influence what emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience or express them [4].”
Alacha, H. F., Lefler, E. K., & Bufferd, S. J. (2024) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-024-01796-x · Cited by 4
“Adequate emotion regulation involves a heterogeneous group of behavioral and cognitive strategies that control what, when, and how individuals feel emotions [75].”
del Rosario, K., West, T. V., Siegel, E. H., & Mendes, W. B. (2025) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0001490 · Cited by 2
Kohatsu, M., Muis, K. R., Pekrun, R. H., Sinatra, G. M., Kendeou, P., Robinson, K. A., Kennedy, A. A. U., & Shankar, S. (2025) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2025.2459388 · Cited by 6
“As a multi-component process unfolding over time, emotion regulation involves the attempt to increase or decrease the magnitude or duration of one’s emotions (Gross, 2002; Gross et al., 2006; Gross & Thompson, 2007).”
InfluentialWillroth, E. C., Young, G. C., Ford, B. Q., Troy, A. S., Swierzewicz, D., & Mauss, I. B. (2025) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09567976251335567 · Cited by 4
“For example, reappraisal (i.e., reframing one’s thoughts about a situation to change its emotional impact; Gross, 2002) is often seen as a particularly useful tool because it is generally associated with positive outcomes (Gross & John, 2003; Troy et al., 2010).”
Suffering and Compassion in Older Adult Caregiving Relationships
Schulz, R., & Monin, J. K. (2018) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-64113-139-120251015 · Cited by 3
Motus Moderari: A Neuroscience-Informed Model for Self-Regulation of Emotion and Motivation
Livingston, J., Kahn, L. E., & Berkman, E. T. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-1236-0_13 · Cited by 3
“Interestingly, suppression was more effective at regulating reactivity in classical reward regions, despite the fact that suppression is generally found to be less effective than reappraisal (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundMirabile, S. P. (2010) · ScholarWorks @ The University of New Orleans (The University of New Orleans) · Cited by 3
Hobday, V. L., Law, G. U., & Howard, R. A. (2016) · International Journal of Celiac Disease · doi:10.12691/ijcd-3-4-10 · Cited by 3
Bota, I. (2014) · Cited by 3
Houser, M. E. (2015) · Digital Commons - DU (University of Denver) · Cited by 3
Toprak, Z., & Bacak, S. Ç. (2019) · Yaşadıkça Eğitim · doi:10.33308/26674874.2019332133 · Cited by 4
The Mindful Emotion Management Framework
Reb, J. M., & Masters-Waage, T. C. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108573887.015 · Cited by 3
Shokri, A., Kazemi, R., Narimani, M., & Taklavi, S. (2020) · Quarterly Journal of Child Mental Health · doi:10.29252/jcmh.7.1.18 · Cited by 3
Jafarpour, H., Akbari, B., Shakernia, I., & Mojreh, S. A. (2021) · Quarterly Journal of Child Mental Health · doi:10.52547/jcmh.7.4.6 · Cited by 3
“Emotion regulation training program used in this study was based on Gross's model for emotion regulation (51).”
MethodGENÇ YETİŞKİNLERE YÖNELİK DUYGU DÜZENLEME MÜDAHALELERİ: SİSTEMATİK GÖZDEN GEÇİRME
Tunç, Ö. G., & Dursun, A. (2021) · Ihlara Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi · doi:10.47479/ihead.928033 · Cited by 3
Witten, J. A., Coetzer, R., & Turnbull, O. H. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.834314 · Cited by 3
“…2022 | Volume 13 | Article 834314 impaired emotion regulation (ER; Arciniegas and Wortzel, 2014; Salas et al., 2014; Caplan et al., 2015; Aboulafia-Brakha et al., 2016; Winter et al., 2018): the ability to modify and control personal experiences and expressions of emotion (Gross, 1998a, 2002).”
BackgroundShapiro, D. L. (2002) · Conflict Resolution Quarterly · doi:10.1002/crq.3890200106 · Cited by 3
Burkhardt, T. (2014) · Loyola eCommons (Loyola University of Chicago) · Cited by 3
The effect of music type on emotion regulation: An emotional-Stroop experiment
Freggens, M. (2022) · Digital Archive @ GSU · doi:10.57709/6909562 · Cited by 3
Roß, T. (2007) · International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy · doi:10.1037/h0100833 · Cited by 3
“…conceptual foundation and consistent terminology, and the clarification of structures, components, and processes of self-regulation (Pintrich, 2000; Gross, 1998, 2002; Baumeister & Vohs, 2004; Ochsner & Gross, 2005), we focussed on a theoretical source that promised to reconcile findings from…”
BackgroundHerpertz, S., & Schütz, A. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-48199-8_11 · Cited by 3
(2012) · EvoS Journal · doi:10.59077/zzzc4362 · Cited by 3
“When an individual attempts to mask his own behaviors, his capacity to monitor the emotions of others is significantly impaired (Gross, 2002), meaning that in order to elicit the kind of cooperation necessary for leadership, a person must exhibit confidence not only in his abilities but also in the transparency of his…”
BackgroundBehavioral Treatments for Anxiety in Adults With Autism Spectrum Disorder
White, S., Conner, C. M., & Maddox, B. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-805122-1.00009-0 · Cited by 3
Kim, Y. J. Y. (2017) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh) · Cited by 3
Work-Related Well-Being: From Qualitative Job Insecurity to Cognitive Reappraisal
Vîrgă, D. (2017) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/67507 · Cited by 3
“Cognitive reappraisal occurs very early in the emotion-generative process and prevents the development of negative emotions [22].”
BackgroundInfluentialComment: The Emotional Basis of Toxic Affect
Fischer, A. H. (2018) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/1754073917719327 · Cited by 3
“…that the suppression of negative emotion expressions indeed decreases emotional expressions, but does not decrease emotional intensity, and in fact increases physiological responding compared to other, more cognitively oriented emotion regulation strategies, such as reappraisal (Gross, 2002).”
ResultMemory, emotion regulation, and social inference skills in college students
Ferreira, K. E., & Adleman, N. E. (2018) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-018-9833-7 · Cited by 5
A Study on the Suppression of Amusement
Nwogu, I., Passino, B., & Bailey, R. (2018) · International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition · doi:10.1109/fg.2018.00057 · Cited by 3
fayand, J., Akbari, M., Moradi, O., & Karimi, K. (2019) · Journal of Health and Care · doi:10.29252/jhc.20.4.301 · Cited by 3
Perfil emocional del profesorado y sus implicaciones en prácticas docentes no intervencionistas
Trapero, N. P. (2019) · Profesorado Revista de Currículum y Formación del Profesorado · doi:10.30827/profesorado.v23i1.9165 · Cited by 2
Relation between Nunchi and Emotion regulation: Moderating Effects of Cultural orientation
Lee, S. B., & Heo, J. (2018) · Korea Journal of Counseling · doi:10.15703/kjc.19.6.201812.37 · Cited by 3
Метакогнитивный подход в диагностике трудностей психической саморегуляции студентов
Бызова, В. М., Lovyagina, А. Е., & Perikova, E. I. (2019) · Российский психологический журнал · doi:10.21702/rpj.2019.2.2 · Cited by 3
Emotional Regulation and Pediatric Behavior Health Problems
Parrish, C., Fajer, H., & Papadakis, A. A. (2019) · Autism and child psychopathology series · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-21683-2_5 · Cited by 3
SOSYODEMOGRAFİK AÇIDAN FARKLI ÖZELLİKTEKİ ADÖLESANLARIN DUYGU DÜZENLEME DURUMLARININ BELİRLENMESİ
Hendekçi, A. (2019) · Journal of Anatolia Nursing and Health Sciences · doi:10.17049/ataunihem.491273 · Cited by 3
Tingkat Kemampuan Kelola Emosi Marah Siswa SMA
Utami, F. P., Lasan, B. B., & Hambali, I. (2019) · Jurnal Pendidikan Teori Penelitian dan Pengembangan · doi:10.17977/jptpp.v4i2.12033 · Cited by 3
“Hal tersebut sejalan dengan pendapat (Gross, 2018) tentang hasil dari regulasi emosi terdiri dari dua, yaitu reappraisal atau penilaian kembali dan suppression atau penekanan.”
BackgroundHrvatski prijevod Upitnika kognitivne emocionalne regulacije – skraćeni oblik
Klinika za dječje bolesti, K. B. C. S., Mišetić, I., Bubić, A., & Filozofski fakultet, S. U. S. (2016) · Klinička psihologija · doi:10.21465/2016-kp-2-0003 · Cited by 3
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Nowocin, D., Popiel, A., Zieliński, P., & Zawadzki, B. (2022) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.111493 · Cited by 3
A Multilevel Model of Managing Emotions in Transformational Organizational Identity Change
Dillon, P. J., & Manz, C. C. (2016) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s1746-979120160000012009 · Cited by 3
Mohamadiheris, V., Shakerdolag, A., Khademi, A., Zeynali, A., & Safai, N. (2021) · Nursing and Midwifery Journal · doi:10.52547/unmf.19.8.610 · Cited by 3
Emmelkamp, J., Wisman, M. A., Beuk, N., Stikkelbroek, Y. A. J., Nauta, M. H., Dekker, J., & Christ, C. (2022) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-04291-6 · Cited by 6
Memotret Peran Keberfungsian Keluarga Terhadap Regulasi Emosi Remaja yang Diasuh Oleh Ibu Tunggal
Widyaswara, W. E., Latipun, L., & Syakarofath, N. A. (2022) · Gadjah Mada Journal of Psychology (GamaJoP) · doi:10.22146/gamajop.68791 · Cited by 3
Can, G., Candemir, G., & Satıcı, S. A. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03771-y · Cited by 4
“Re-appraisal can effectively reduce negative emotion (Mauss et al., 2007) and is associated with various positive psychological outcomes (Gross, 2002).”
Incongruent affect in early childhood: Neurobiological markers and links to psychopathology.
Santana, A. M., & Grabell, A. S. (2022) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0001180 · Cited by 4
Lippert, M. W., Sommer, K., Flasinski, T., Schomberg, J., Pflug, V., Christiansen, H., In‐Albon, T., Knappe, S., Romanos, M., Tuschen‐Caffier, B., et al. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0279658 · Cited by 3
Emotion and Emotion Regulation Considerations for Speech-Based In-Vehicle Interfaces
Harris, H. (2013) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-39262-7_64 · Cited by 3
The Modulation Effect of Personality Traits on the Psychosocial Stress Response
Wang, Y., & Yang, J. (2015) · Advances in Psychological Science · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2015.01453 · Cited by 3
“…导致 自责以及自我评价的降低(Ford & Collins, 2010)。 虽然西方文化下的研究结果表明个体的自尊 水平与心理性应激反应呈负相关, 然而在中国文 化背景下进行的类似研究却得到了相反结果, 中 国被试的自尊水平与心理性应激水平呈正相关 (见表 1)。例如, 研究者通过经典的特里尔社会应 激测试任务(Trier Social Stress Test: TSST)创设心 理性应激情境来考察这一主题, 结果发现无论是 心率指标还是唾液皮质醇指标, 高自尊水平都伴 随着高应激反应 (杨娟, 侯燕, 杨瑜, 陈伟海, 2013),…”
The Role of Emotion and Motivation in Jury Decision-Making
Holloway, C. P., & Wiener, R. L. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190658113.003.0012 · Cited by 4
Légaré, C., Morin, D., Poirier, N., & Nader‐Grosbois, N. (2019) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2019.1015133 · Cited by 3
“Emotional regulation refers to the processes by which people govern the emotions they feel, when they feel them and how they experience and express these emotions (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundBowen, A. D. (2013) · Unisa Institutional Repository (University of South Africa) · Cited by 3
Behavioral and electrophysiological observations of attentional control in children who stutter
Chou, F.-C., Zebrowski, P. M., Moon, J., et al. (2014) · doi:10.17077/etd.hb1r1a1m · Cited by 3
“…refers to the attempts that individuals make to influence “which emotions we have, when we have them, and how we experience and express them” (Gross, 2002, p. 282), and the purpose of emotional regulation is to accomplish emotion-related biological or social adaptation, or to achieve…”
BackgroundThe role of rumination in the development of depressive symptoms in youth
Rood, L. (2011) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20111103lr · Cited by 3
Menchola, M. (2007) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona) · Cited by 3
Shared display rules and emotional labor in work teams
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Mogale, P. M. (2015) · Unisa Institutional Repository (University of South Africa) · Cited by 3
Adolescent boys' health : managing emotions, masculinities and subjective social status
Randell, E. (2016) · Dalarna University College Electronic Archive · Cited by 3
Coping with Interpersonal Mistreatment
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The chef as an emotional and aesthetic labourer; an employee in transition
Graham, D. (2015) · SHURA (Sheffield Hallam University Research Archive) (Sheffield Hallam University) · Cited by 3
Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale--French Version
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Menstrual cycle-related changes in the human brain
Pletzer, B. A., Comasco, E., Hidalgo‐Lopez, E., Kimmig, A.-C. S., Poromaa, I. S., & Derntl, B. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-820480-1.00151-0 · Cited by 4
Constitutional and behavioural correlates of individual differences in biological stress reactivity
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Kişilerarası Düzenleme Ölçeği’nin Türkçeye Uyarlanması: Geçerlik ve Güvenirlik Çalışması
Yüzbaşı, D. V., & AKGÜN, B. D. (2021) · Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.32600/huefd.673052 · Cited by 2
Reactions to Negative Feedback: The Role of Resiliency and Implications for Counterproductivity
Daljeet, K. N., Feeney, J. R., & Goffin, R. (2022) · Journal of Behavioral and Applied Management · doi:10.21818/001c.38519 · Cited by 3
“As such, a review by Gross (2002) on the cognitive processing and regulation of (negative) emotions offers one plausible explanation as to why no significant moderation was found. In his review, Gross (2002) argues that there are two dominant strategies that are used to regulate (negative) emotions, they are cognitive…”
BackgroundInfluentialPrince, M., & Kim, Y. (2023) · Journal of Applied Social Science · doi:10.1177/19367244231208893 · Cited by 3
“All elements of emotional regulation may be operative in the process (Dillard and Yang 2019; Gross 2002; McQueen, Vernon, and Swank 2013).”
BackgroundThe Neuroscience of Emotion and Intrinsic Motivation
Ng, B. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-5378-3_4 · Cited by 2
Miller, M. L., Jiang, L. J., & O’Hara, M. W. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23644 · Cited by 3
The Relationship between Parental Smartphone Addiction and Preschool Children’s Emotional Regulation
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Emotion Regulation Under Stress: A Social Processing and Memory Perspective
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“Expressive suppression is a type of response modulation described as inhibiting the expression of negative emotions (Gross 2002).”
InfluentialPrice, C. J., Colgan, D. D., Blakeney, E. A., Pennings, J. S., Davidson, C. A., & Hansen, K. A. (2025) · Global Advances in Integrative Medicine and Health · doi:10.1177/27536130251331029 · Cited by 3
“44 Many studies have found direct associations between emotional dysregulation and chronic pain, pain-related disability, and depressive symptoms.”
Chan, C. H., & Ho, H. C. Y. (2025) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-025-10610-4 · Cited by 3
“Cognitive reappraisal (CR) involves reframing and attrib-uting new meaning to an event, thereby altering the emotional impact associated with that event (Gross, 1998, 2002; McRae, 2016).”
InfluentialAt the heart of couple conflict: Emotion regulation and cardiac reactivity
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“Emotion regulation encompasses the use of various conscious and unconscious strategies directed at shaping the nature, timing and intensity of an emotional experience (Gross, 2002).”
Wang, L., Shi, Y., Yang, X., Chen, Y., Chen, Q., Yang, Y., & Luo, Z. (2025) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2025.2499568 · Cited by 2
“The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (Gross, 2002) includes the cognitive reappraisal subscale (six items; e.g. 'I control my emotions by changing the way I think about the situation I'm in') and the expression suppression subscale (four items; e.g. 'I control my emotions by not expressing them').”
InfluentialZhang, X., Fang, N., Wang, R., Zhu, L., Zhang, D., Teng, H., & Qiu, B. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15050672 · Cited by 2
“In contrast, “sadness” and “unhappiness” are more frequently accompanied by external expressions, making them more observable (Gross, 2002).”
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“Important psychological factors influencing physical performance and sports include learning, attention and concentration [10], mental imagery and emotions [11], motivation [12], individual differences [13], anger, and mood [14].”
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“Authors such as gross (2002) also suggest that changing interpretations of situations can alter emotional reactions, while emotional processes can enhance cognitive functions (Cole et al., 2004).”
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“Therefore, the study suggests that interventions for patients with lung cancer undergoing chemotherapy should focus on the development of PTG using PCER and SOC, with a significant focus on SOC.”
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“Emotion suppression may be linked to decreased social support from others, as those who suppress are less likely to share both their positive and negative emotions with others, thereby curbing the potential for support [23–25].”
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“This step was grounded in literature highlighting the pivotal role of emotional regulation in shaping adolescent outcomes in technology use (Gross, 2002; Eisenberg et al. 2004).”
Yin, H., Khairudin, R., Yixin, S., Zhang, X., Xinyu, C., Yusoff, S., & Subhi, N. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0330870 · Cited by 2
“However, when experiencing depression, individuals with higher subjective SES may employ cognitive reappraisal strategies in a maladaptive form, by reinterpreting unfair treatment as fair, to reduce cognitive dissonance [44,45].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Gross, J. J.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gross, James J.
- ORCID
- Gross, James J.
- Venue
- Psychophysiology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2002-05
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 281-291
- ISSN
- 0048-5772 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8986
- OpenAlex
- W2128126978
- Cited by
- 4,890
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 341 · 2025: 492 · 2024: 315 · 2023: 314 · 2022: 321 · 2021: 315 · 2020: 273 · 2019: 267 · 2018: 276 · 2017: 254 · 2016: 226 · 2015: 232 · 2014: 233 · 2013: 228 · 2012: 179
- FWCI
- 5.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychophysiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH 58147)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- emotion regulation, cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, process model of emotion regulation, emotional experience, emotional expression, memory impairment, individual differences
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Cognition, Emotions, Humans, Psychophysiology, Social Behavior
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