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Emotion regulation: affective, cognitive, and social consequences.
Open accessAbstract
One of life's great challenges is successfully regulating emotions. Do some emotion regulation strategies have more to recommend them than others? According to Gross's (1998, Review of General Psychology, 2, 271-299) process model of emotion regulation, strategies that act early in the emotion-generative process should have a different profile of consequences than strategies that act later on. This review focuses on two commonly used strategies for down-regulating emotion. The first, reappraisal, comes early in the emotion-generative process. It consists of changing the way a situation is construed so as to decrease its emotional impact. The second, suppression, comes later in the emotion-generative process. It consists of inhibiting the outward signs of inner feelings. Experimental and individual-difference studies find reappraisal is often more effective than suppression. Reappraisal decreases emotion experience and behavioral expression, and has no impact on memory. By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory. Suppression also increases physiological responding for suppressors and their social partners. This review concludes with a consideration of five important directions for future research on emotion regulation processes.
Checked 2026-10-05 · 1 reference not checked yet
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27 Own result · 22 Own interpretation · 13 No full text of the sources · 9 Sources not found · 6 No basis given · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Own method
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Also unlike suppression, reappraisal decreased disgust experience, whereas suppression had no effect on disgust experience.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 5 · plain
“It is noteworthy that whereas suppressing negative emotionexpressive behavior has no discernible impact on negative emotion experience ~ e.g., disgust, sadness, embarrassment ! , suppressing positive emotion-expressive behavior does have an impact on positive emotion experience ~ e.g., amusement ! .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, reappraisal had no impact on verbal memory.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Relations between suppression and negative emotion expression also followed expectations, with suppression being associated with lesser negative emotion expressive behavior.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reappraisal, by contrast, was associated with greater positive emotion experience and expression, and lesser negative emotion experience and expression.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reappraisal decreases emotion experience and behavioral expression, and has no impact on memory.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Also unlike suppression, reappraisal decreased disgust experience, whereas suppression had no effect on disgust experience.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5 · plain
“Reappraisal, by contrast, was associated with greater positive emotion experience and expression, and lesser negative emotion experience and expression.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we found that individuals who scored higher on either of the two suppression scales reported having worse memory that those who scored lower on these suppression scales”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory.”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · hedged
“As predicted, results indicated that suppression led to reliable decrements ~ compared to the control condition ! in both objective memory and memory confidence ratings.”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“As predicted, suppression participants performed less well on the verbal memory test than control participants.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · hedged
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They also performed worse on an objective memory test in which they were asked to recall events they had listed in a daily diary 1 week earlier.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Unlike suppression, however, reappraisal had no observable consequences in terms of sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular or electrodermal systems.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, suppression's effect on verbal memory was just as pronounced for the low-emotion as for the high-emotion slides, suggesting that it is the process of engaging in suppression that is cognitively costly, rather than the amount of emotion that is actually suppressed.”
plainn = 76- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 28
- Probably not a substantial claim. 6
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Table 1. Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression (Controlling for Neuroticism and Social Desirability)”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“| Self-reported | - .31 * | - .23 * | .09 |”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“| Objective | - .33 * | - .27 * | .05 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Findings regarding suppression and negative emotion experience were mixed, showing either no effects or positive effects, that is, the more individuals said they suppressed, the more negative emotion they said they felt.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In each case, suppression was associated with negative outcomes, whereas reappraisal was associated with positive outcomes.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas suppress participants showed greater increases in sympathetic activation than watch or reappraise subjects, these latter two groups did not differ from one another.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In each case, suppression was associated with negative outcomes, whereas reappraisal was associated with positive outcomes.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Gross and Levenson ~ 1997 ! found a suppression effect for amusement experience both in a context that predominantly elicited amusement ~ an amusement film ! and in a context in which there were lower levels of amusement ~ a sadness film that evoked a bit of secondary amusement ! .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gross and Levenson, 1997 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As expected, suppression decreased nonemotional behavior, and no differences were found between suppress and watch subjects for any of the physiological or experiential variables.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, however, emotions do not force us to respond in certain ways, they only make it more likely we will do so.”
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Individuals with schizophrenia have decreased emotion-expressive behavior compared with controls, but comparable levels of emotion experience”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kring & Neale, 1996 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“reappraisal seems to decrease negative emotion experience and expression while either having no impact or actually increasing positive emotion experience and expression”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These latter changes cohere theoretically, and can be described in terms of 'increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system.'”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such monitoring requires a continual outlay of cognitive resources, reducing the resources available for processing events so that they can later be remembered.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The logic of this comparative design hinges on the premise that whereas antecedent-focused forms of emotion regulation ~ such as reappraisal ! principally concern whether or not emotion response tendencies are triggered , response-focused strategies ~ such as suppression ! concern how emotion response tendencies are modulated once they have been triggered .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Suppression also was associated with poorer social support and lesser use of instrumental and emotional social support coping.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gross and John ~ in press !
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“reappraisal led to increased activation of lateral prefrontal regions important for cognitive control, and to decreases in activation of the amygdala and medial orbitofrontal cortex”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Ochsner, Bunge, Gross, & Gabrieli, 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Patients with schizophrenia also have well-characterized deficits in social functioning, and lead those interacting with them to feel uncomfortable”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Krause, Steimer, Sanger-Alt, & Wagner, 1989 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suppression seems to be a blunt instrument-one that decreases both negative and positive emotion-expressive behavior, thereby masking important social signals that would otherwise be available to social interaction partners”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the ongoing requirement of monitoring one's own facial expressions and vocal signals could distract the suppressing individual and make them less responsive to the emotional cues of their partner”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggest that whereas suppression is cognitively costly, reappraisal is not”
- Also stated in: § Concluding Comment · p. 9 · hedged
“Suppression also consumes cognitive resources, impairing memory for information presented during the emotion regulation period. Reappraisal, by contrast, appears to have no such cognitive consequences.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The suppression and reappraisal constructs measured as habitual individual differences are the same constructs manipulated in the laboratory experiments.
- Also stated in: § Concluding Comment · p. 9 · hedged
In the paper
“Similarly, Harris ~ 2001 ! has found that suppressing visible signs of embarrassment leads to enhanced blood pressure responses, but does not affect emotion experience reports.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harris, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Compared with the no soundtrack condition, participants who heard the soundtrack had lower skin conductance levels and more pleasant mood ratings.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lazarus & Alfert, 1964 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Theorists since Darwin ~ 1872 0 1998 ! have maintained that emotionexpressive behavior plays an important role in facilitating social interactions.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Campos, Mumme, Kermoian, & Campos, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“over half of the nonsubstance related Axis I clinical disorders and all of the Axis II personality disorders involve some form of emotion dysregulation”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gross & Levenson, 1997 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Individuals increase, maintain, and decrease negative and positive emotions ~ Parrott, 1993 ! .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Parrott, 1993
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Suppression also increases electrodermal responding and blood pressure, and decreases finger pulse amplitude, finger temperature, and pulse transit times.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gross, 1998a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gross & Levenson, 1993, 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This would make costly self-regulation unnecessary, leaving memory intact.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Taken together, these findings concerning suppression suggest decreases in positive emotion experience, but the physiological effects of suppression are not clear.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that the cognitive costs of suppression are due to the verbal demands of self-instructions issued during the course of suppression ~ e.g., 'I need to keep my face still' ! .”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
In the paper
“Diverse forms of self-regulation result in similar kinds of 'ego depletion,' which suggests that a common resource may be consumed in diverse forms of regulation”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suppression appears to have little impact on negative emotion experience, while decreasing positive emotion experience”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
“Suppression is a form of emotion regulation that requires selfmonitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Emotions involve coordinated behavioral, experiential, and physiological response tendencies.
“In either case, emotions call forth a coordinated set of behavioral, experiential, and physiological response tendencies that together influence how we respond to perceived challenges and opportunities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The personal meaning assigned to a situation strongly influences which experiential, behavioral, and physiological response tendencies are generated.
“The personal meaning that is assigned to the situation is crucial because it powerfully influences which experiential, behavioral, and physiological response tendencies will be generated in that particular situation.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The suppression and reappraisal constructs measured as habitual individual differences are the same constructs manipulated in the laboratory experiments.
“These individual-difference findings converge with the results of our experimental studies, and suggest that whereas suppression is cognitively costly, reappraisal is not.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source doesn’t support the claim as written.
In the citing paper
“In the last two decades clinicians have shown that mindfulness training can improve emotional disorders [74] and negative mood [75] and reduce physiological responses such as skin conductance [76] and amygdala activity [67].”
From Mindful emotion regulation: Exploring the neurocognitive mechanisms behind mindfulness (2015) · cites this paper as [74]
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“some models of emotions distinguish between antecedent-focused and response-focused emotion regulation strategies, based on the differential processing of internal and external emotional cues [65–68].”
From The empirical status of the "new wave" of cognitive behavioral therapy (2010) · cites this paper as [66]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“In addition, the recognition performance of emotional stimuli seems to be unaffected by emotional reappraisal (see [9,28] but see [29]), whereas suppression leads to impaired recognition [8,9].”
From Effects of differential strategies of emotion regulation (2019) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“We used similar instructions as Gross and colleagues to induce suppression (e.g., Gross & Levenson, 1997), and we replicated their earlier findings, suggesting that our experimental manipulation worked (Gross, 1998, 2002; Gross & Levenson, 1997).”
From How to handle anxiety: The effects of reappraisal, acceptance, and suppression strategies on anxious arousal (2009) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Laboratory based studies of cognitive change report psychological benefits from instructing participants to reappraise emotional stimuli or tasks in a manner designed to diminish personal identification and increase objectivity before the individuals encounter the stimuli or task”
From United we stand: emphasizing commonalities across cognitive-behavioral therapies. (2013) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“to achieve a common goal of behavioral adaptation, CBTs share change principles that target responding at different points along an emotional trajectory (Gross, 2002), including context engagement which can be seen as encompassing therapeutic processes of behavioral exposure and behavioral activation; attention change, which can be seen as encompassing therapeutic processes of attention training”
From United we stand: emphasizing commonalities across cognitive-behavioral therapies. (2013) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Within this framework, the process model differentiates emotion regulation strategies according to the time they intervene in the unfolding emotional response: we can distinguish between antecedent-focused strategies, which are used before the emotion response tendencies become active, and response-focused strategies, which are used once the response tendencies are generated [56,60,61].”
From Interoceptive Ability and Emotion Regulation in Mind–Body Interventions: An Integrative Review (2024) · cites this paper as [60]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reappraisal is an effective emotion regulation strategy (Gross, 2002), that has been demonstrated to facilitate emotion regulation in healthy and psychiatric cohorts.”
From Rt-fMRI neurofeedback-guided cognitive reappraisal training modulates amygdala responsivity in posttraumatic stress disorder (2020) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
In the citing paper
“Emotion regulation therapy (ERT) is one approach to combining CBTs and MBIs that addresses sequencing by targeting the refractory negative emotionality and resulting negative self-referentiality that characterizes distress disorders [75] by first addressing attention change techniques”
From All together now: utilizing common functional change principles to unify cognitive behavioral and mindfulness-based therapies (2019) · cites this paper as [81]
In the citing paper
“Taken together, this suggests that the generation of compassion in response to distressing situations is distinct from other emotion regulation strategies, such as suppression or reappraisal, which involve an active downregulation of negative affect (Gross, 2002).”
From Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training (2014) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
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Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Social Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 7
“We asked unacquainted pairs of women to watch an upsetting film, and then discuss their reactions ~ Butler, Egloff, Wilhelm, Smith, & Gross, 2002 ! .”
§ REFERENCES · p. 10
“Butler, E. A., Egloff, B., Wilhelm, F. H., Smith, N. C., & Gross, J. J. ~ 2001 ! . The social consequences of emotion regulation . Manuscript under review.”
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Cognitive Inhibition and Its Relation to Emotion Regulation in Dysphoria
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“Using the emotional regulation process model proposed by Gross (Gross, 1998; Gross, 2002), the subjects were instructed to use cognitive change methods of emotion regulation, particularly reappraisal, to increase or decrease their responses.”
BackgroundMethodIntegration of cognitive and affective processes in perception and decision-making
Mengarelli, F. (2012) · AMS Dottorato Institutional Doctoral Theses Repository (University of Bologna) · doi:10.6092/unibo/amsdottorato/5074 · Cited by 2
“…dorsal ACC in reappraisal, namely the modulation of emotional processing through deliberate and conscious application of top-down executive control (Gross, 2002) and activation of ventral ACC in affect labeling of emotional faces (Lieberman et al., 2007) or selfdistracting from fear-conditioned…”
BackgroundOatley, K. (2004) · Cited by 2
Leinonen, O. (2013) · Jyväskylä University Digital Archive (University of Jyväskylä) · Cited by 2
Fritz, M. A. (2015) · Archive ouverte UNIGE (University of Geneva) · Cited by 2
Non-verbal expression perception and mental state attribution by third parties
Hyniewska, S. (2013) · Archive ouverte UNIGE (University of Geneva) · doi:10.13097/archive-ouverte/unige:29387 · Cited by 2
The Effects of Discrete Emotions on Risky Decision Making
Sim, H. (2016) · San José State University ScholarWorks (San Jose State University) · doi:10.31979/etd.qpqx-9r59 · Cited by 3
“…two effective ER strategies include cognitive reappraisal, which occurs before the emotional experience and involves redefining the situation; and expressive suppression, which occurs after the emotional experience and involves inhibiting the emotional response (Gross, 2002; Heilman et al., 2010).”
BackgroundThe interaction between emotion and economic decision-making
Charpentier, C. J. (2016) · UCL Discovery (University College London) · Cited by 2
Immigrants regulate emotions in the same way as majority members in the Netherlands
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Fear of failure in entrepreneurship : improving well-being through emotion regulation
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Emotion regulation and the experience of racial microaggressions.
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“For example, efforts to suppress the expression of negative emotions may increase the internal affective experience of negative emotions because of the ongoing cognitive effort required to suppress such expressions (Gross, 1998; Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundAn Ethically-Guided Domain-Independent Model of Computational Emotions
Ojha, S. (2020) · UTS ePRESS (University of Technology Sydney) · Cited by 2
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Blunted neural response to implicit negative facial affect in anorexia nervosa
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“완벽주의자는 시험과 같은 - 64 - 불안을 유발하는 평가 상황에 서 다른 사람들보 다 부정적 정서를 더 경험하게 될 가능성이 높 다. 이때 정서에 대한 인지적 처리는 부정적 정 서를 효과적으로 조절할 수 있도록 도울 수 있 는데(Gross, 2002), 적응적 인지 정서조절 전략 은 부정적인 감정을 완화시킬 수 있고, 부정적 인 인지 정서조절 전략은 부정적인 감정을 증가 시킬 수 있다.”
Carron, P. (2018) · International Journal for Philosophy of Religion · doi:10.1007/s11153-018-9661-6 · Cited by 1
“An individual in a certain situation, allowing the situation to play out, can focus her attention on various aspects of the situation (Gross 2002, p. 283).”
BackgroundRoles, Rituals and Emotional Regulation of rugby players on different competitive levels
Hough, P., Nel, M., de Klerk, T., et al. (2019) · South African Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.17159/2310-3833/2019/vol49n1a8 · Cited by 1
“Although emotional suppression might be an effective emotional regulation strategy in preventing unwarranted aggression, literature shows it to be a less healthy option than emotional reappraisal 49 .”
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Treating Emotional Distress through the use of Emotion and Cognitive-Based Therapies
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“The current literature examined emotions as rather related to individual learning and their effects on the cognitive and/or physiological processes, whether by interfering with them (Gross, 2002) or enhancing them (Moreno, 2022; Pekrun, 1992).”
Emotional Psychoeducational Group for Psychiatric Inpatients. Findings from a Clinical Study
Lucattelli, R., Pecorari, M., Mentuccia, V., Biello, C., Riggio, F., Sagliano, T., Marino, G., Nicolò, G., & Bernabei, L. (2023) · Journal of Psychology and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.12974/2313-1047.2023.10.10 · Cited by 4
“…shaping the dynamics of psychiatric wards (Roche et al , 2014), thus contributing to increasing conflicts or generating situations of high tension, fostering the creation of vicious cycles that result in an escalation of unpleasant emotions and sometimes aggressive acting out (Gross, 1998, 2002).”
BackgroundThe Effect of Digital Parenting Awareness on Children's Emotion Regulation Skills
Manap, A. (2024) · Iğdır üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi · doi:10.54600/igdirsosbilder.1389321 · Cited by 1
杨, 丹. (2024) · Advances in Social Sciences · doi:10.12677/ass.2024.132141 · Cited by 1
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“Emotion regulation reflects conscious and unconscious strategies that an individual uses to modulate their emotional experience (Gross, 2002 ), whereby effective emotion regulation can facilitate adaptive responding to changing situational demands (Gratz & Roemer, 2004; Tamir, 2011).”
Credible Sadness, Coercive Sadness
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“The term "emotion regulation" describes a range of strategies that affect how people manage their emotional experiences, such as acceptance, suppression, and cognitive reappraisal (Gross, 2002).”
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Gez-Langerman, R. (2024) · International Journal of Listening · doi:10.1080/10904018.2024.2381436 · Cited by 1
“In contrast, suppression delays the emotional expression, effectively hiding the emotion (Gross, 2001, 2002, 2013; Gross & Levenson, 1997).”
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“Firstly, while emotions undoubtedly influence cognitive processes, cognitive processes can also modulate emotional states, suggesting a dynamic interplay between mood and cognition (Bar, 2009; Gray, 2004; Gross, 2002; Salovey et al., 2002).”
Pazhooyan, M., Lavasani, F. F., Shateri, Z. E., & Tajrishi, K. Z. (2024) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-024-00802-3 · Cited by 6
“When analyzing these two forms of ER strategies, it is repeatedly shown that reappraisal is preferable to suppression as the latter is associated with reduced manifestation and experience of positive and negative emotions [28].”
BackgroundDong, X., & Geng, L. (2024) · Ecopsychology · doi:10.1089/eco.2024.0026 · Cited by 5
“Cognitive reappraisal may be a mediator in the link between CN and LS. Cognitive reappraisal is a form of cognitive change (Gross & John, 2003) that involves reevaluating thoughts or stressors to improve one ’ s emotional state by neutralizing emotional situations (Gross, 2002).”
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“…(CR), an antecedent-focused emotion regulation strategy that involves reinterpreting emotionally evocative situations to modify emotional experiences (Gross, 2002), has been shown to effectively regulate subjective cravings and is widely used in experimental research (Kober et al., 2010).”
Expressive Suppression of Emotions in Bulimia Nervosa: An Electroencephalography Study
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“…the use of suppression is associated with stress ‐ related symptoms, such as increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system, greater negative affect, anxiety, depression, and decreased well ‐ being (Gross 2002; Haga, Kraft, and Corby 2009; Moore, Zoellner, and Mollenholt 2008).”
Embalsado, R. L. C., Embalsado, J. V. M., & Yabut, H. J. (2024) · Asia Pacific Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/21507686.2024.2445313 · Cited by 1
“The cognitive reappraisal could lead to different meanings of the situation and therefore influence the emotions (Gross, 2002).”
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“The ability to independently regulate emotions is fundamental to healthy development (Compas et al., 2017; Gross, 2002; Thomsen & Lessing, 2020).”
Byun, S., Lee, Y., & Jeon, L. (2025) · The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher · doi:10.1007/s40299-025-00972-4 · Cited by 4
“Typically, reappraisal is considered a healthier response to negative emotional experiences than suppression (Gross, 2002).”
Kim, S. (2025) · Psychiatry International · doi:10.3390/psychiatryint6010012 · Cited by 1
“On the other hand, sadness can evoke feelings of empathy and compassion for those affected by the crisis [43].”
Exploring the experiences of parents of gifted students regarding bullying
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“Non-gifted children may target gifted children simply because they perceive them as different (Gross, 2002; Peterson, 2009).”
Huang, S. Y. B. (2025) · Asia Pacific Business Review · doi:10.1080/13602381.2025.2453892 · Cited by 1
Guo, S., Yang, J., Lipp, O. V., & Zhang, J. (2025) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2025.2459149 · Cited by 1
“Cognitive reappraisal, one of the most frequently used strategies, refers to the reframing and reinterpretation of the emotion-eliciting situation (Gross, 2002, 2015).”
Christopher, N., Tamplin, J., Dumaresq, E., & Goodill, S. W. (2025) · The Arts in Psychotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.aip.2025.102270 · Cited by 2
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Ye, W., Wang, Z., & Xu, S. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-02720-1 · Cited by 1
“The Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale used in this study is based on the original scale developed by Gratz and Roemer (2004) [5] and was revised into Chinese by Wang Li et al. in 2007 [12].”
InfluentialDuraku, Z. H., Fetahu, D., Konjufca, J., Rrahmani, F., & Bajgora, S. (2025) · International Journal of Adolescence and Youth · doi:10.1080/02673843.2025.2495885 · Cited by 1
“…helps reduce negative emotions and physiological responses by reframing anxiety-provoking situations, while expressive suppression can intensify emotional distress and physiological stress, further impairing cognitive functioning and academic performance (Gross, 2002; Gross & John, 2003).”
Girard, C., & Almeida, T. C. (2025) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287251335006 · Cited by 1
“Emotion regulation involves controlling when and how, and the intensity and valence (positive/negative) of the emotion felt and expressed (Gross, 2002).”
Psoriasis and Emotional Dysregulation: A Multicenter Analysis of Psychodermatology Outcomes
Samela, T., Moretta, G., Provini, A., et al. (2025) · Dermatology Practical & Conceptual · doi:10.5826/dpc.152a4644 · Cited by 1
Adamis, A. M., Jessup, S. C., & Olatunji, B. O. (2025) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2025.2509178 · Cited by 2
“These findings are consistent with prior work suggesting that expressive suppression is generally ineffective at decreasing negative emotional experiences and para-doxically increases the physiological correlates of emotionality (Gross, 2002).”
InfluentialSørensen, L., Jensen, D. A., Lykkebø, A., Adólfsdóttir, S., Holmen, N., Becker, S. P., & Flo, E. (2025) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2025-099096 · Cited by 1
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“Expressive inhibition occurs late in the process of emotion generation and involves inhibiting the outward expression of inner feelings (Gross, 2002).”
Trypophobia discomfort depends on viewing context manipulation
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Hindrance or motivation? How shame affects creativity
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“This supports the broader theoretical framework that emphasizes the importance of emotional regulation in managing personality-driven behaviors (Gross, 2002).”
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“Emotional control is the ability to control and regulate affect and feelings [51].”
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Özdemir, P. (2025) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075251359607 · Cited by 1
“Investigating psychological mechanisms such as self-veri fi cation processes (Swann, 2012) and cognitive reappraisal strategies (Gross, 2002) may also provide insight into how individuals interpret and respond to sacri fi ce.”
The Electrocortical Effects of Repurposing and Reconstrual on the Regulation of Disgust
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“Emotion Regulation Theory emphasizes cognitive strategies’ active modulation of emotional responses, positioning rumination as a passive, maladaptive response-focused strategy that exacerbates negative affect 27 .”
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“Emotion regulation is commonly described as the process by which individuals regulate and control their emotion generation, experience, and expression (Gross, 2002).”
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“…strategy, which involves re-evaluating stimuli and the interpretation of an event to reduce their emotional impact, whereas suppression is a response-focused strategy, which involves efforts to control or reduce emotional experiences and their expression (Gross, 2002 ; Richards & Gross, 2000).”
Porras-Jiménez, Y.-M., Pancorbo-Hidalgo, P. L., López‐Medina, I. M., & Álvarez‐Nieto, C. (2025) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-025-00934-z · Cited by 11
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Metadata
- Authors
- Gross, J. J.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gross, James J.
- ORCID
- Gross, James J.
- Venue
- Psychophysiology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2002-05
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 281-291
- ISSN
- 0048-5772 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8986
- OpenAlex
- W2128126978
- Cited by
- 4,890
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 341 · 2025: 492 · 2024: 315 · 2023: 314 · 2022: 321 · 2021: 315 · 2020: 273 · 2019: 267 · 2018: 276 · 2017: 254 · 2016: 226 · 2015: 232 · 2014: 233 · 2013: 228 · 2012: 179
- FWCI
- 5.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychophysiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH 58147)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- emotion regulation, cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, process model of emotion regulation, emotional experience, emotional expression, memory impairment, individual differences
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Cognition, Emotions, Humans, Psychophysiology, Social Behavior
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