Cited by 1,761Resilience and Mental HealthHealth, psychology, and well-beingOptimism, Hope, and Well-being

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What is resilience? A review and concept analysis.

Windle, Gill·2011·Reviews in Clinical Gerontology

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Abstract

Summary: The complexities of defining what appears to be the relatively simple concept of resilience are widely recognized. This paper analyses the concept of resilience from a range of disciplinary perspectives and clarifies a definition in order to inform research, policy and practice. The work takes a life course approach to resilience, examining evidence derived from research across the lifespan. It incorporates the methods of systematic review, concept analysis and consultation through face-to-face meetings. The synthesis of methodological approaches enables a clear identification of the antecedents, defining attributes and consequences of resilience, validated with stakeholder partners. Through this process, resilience is defined as the process of effectively negotiating, adapting to, or managing significant sources of stress or trauma. Assets and resources within the individual, their life and environment facilitate this capacity for adaptation and ‘bouncing back’ in the face of adversity. Across the life course, the experience of resilience will vary. A large proportion of resilience research is routed within the discipline of developmental psychology, and has mainly been developed with children and adolescents. A major contribution to resilience research could be made through more multi-disciplinary studies that examine the dynamics of resilience across the lifespan, its role in healthy ageing and in managing loss, such as changes in cognitive functioning.

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Ren, L., & Ahn, S. (2025) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.16961 · Cited by 8
Disentangling change across the time and true stability of employees’ resilience using latent state model
Ollis, L., Cropley, M., Plans, D., & Cogo‐Moreira, H. (2022) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-04294-3 · Cited by 14
“Windle [14] believes individuals’ assets, resources and environment facilitate resilience and the ability to ‘bounce back’ after experiencing adversity.”
Background
Resilience in Nurses: The Reliability and Validity of the Resilience ScaleTM
McCoy, T. P., Sauer, P. A., & Sha, S. (2023) · Journal of Nursing Measurement · doi:10.1891/jnm-2022-0019 · Cited by 8
Stress, mental health and sociocultural adjustment in third culture kids: exploring the mediating roles of resilience and family functioning
Jones, E., Reed, M. O., Meyer, A. H., Gaab, J., & Ooi, Y. P. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1093046 · Cited by 12
“Resilience has been extensively associated with better developmental outcomes in high-risk environments and is described as the ability to navigate and negotiate those challenges, potentially promoting mental health and well-being (Ong et al., 2006; Ahern et al., 2008; Ungar, 2010; DiCorcia and Tronick, 2011; Windle,…”
Background
Modelling the Information Abundance Factors That Predict Fake News Sharing Behaviour of Social Media Users: Testing the Moderating Role of Resilience
Guo, M., Apuke, O. D., Tunca, E. A., & Gever, V. C. (2023) · Journal of Asian and African Studies · doi:10.1177/00219096231192312 · Cited by 9
“Therefore, resilience is generally defined as humans’ ability to bounce back and positively adapt in the face of adversity or significant sources of stress (Windle, 2011).”
Exploring the Role of Resilience as a Mediator in Selective Preventive Transdiagnostic Intervention (PROCARE+) for Adolescents at Risk of Emotional Disorders
Vivas-Fernández, M., López, L. J. G., Muela-Martínez, J. A., Piqueras, J. A., Fernández, L. E., Jiménez-Vázquez, D., & Díaz-Castela, M. D. M. (2024) · European Journal of Psychology Open · doi:10.1024/2673-8627/a000054 · Cited by 11
Measuring resilience in competitive tennis players: psychometric properties of the Resilience Scale for Adults
Cowden, R., Meyer-Weitz, A., & Asante, K. O. (2016) · South African Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1177/0081246316644151 · Cited by 8
“Conceptualising resilience as an outcome or a process has been a strongly debated area (Windle, 2011), with some suggestions that, although certain attributes or factors (e.g., personal or social resources) may contribute to achieving resilience, these alone are not archetypal of what resilience is.”
Background
Use of mental health services by community-resident adults with DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders in a violence-prone area: São Paulo, Brazil
Fillenbaum, G. G., Blay, S. L., Mello, M. F., Quintana, M. I., Mari, J. D. J., Bressan, R. A., & Andreoli, S. B. (2019) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.03.010 · Cited by 8
“, 2016); the “process of effectively negotiating, adapting to, or managing significant sources of stress or trauma” (Windle, 2011); and an inner reserve for reducing the harmful effect of stress and for maintaining mental health through adversity (Lazarus and Folkman, 1987).”
Background
Resilience and psychopathology in trauma-exposed Australian Veterans: An exploratory factor analysis of the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale
Kidd, C., Romaniuk, M., McLeay, S. C., Harvey, W., Romaniuk, M., Crawford, D. H., Colquhoun, D., Young, R. M., Dwyer, M., Gibson, J., et al. (2019) · Journal of Military Veteran and Family Health · doi:10.3138/jmvfh.2018-0016 · Cited by 10
Измерение субъективного благополучия детей в России: от локальных социальных практик до федеральной стратегии
Арчакова, Т. О., & Garifulina, E. S. (2020) · Monitoring obŝestvennogo mneniâ: èkonomičeskie i socialʹnye peremeny · doi:10.14515/monitoring.2020.1.11 · Cited by 8
Applied theatre, puppetry and emotional skills in healthcare: A cross-disciplinary pedagogical framework
Σέξτου, Π., Karypidou, A., & Kourtidou-Sextou, E. (2020) · Applied Theatre Research · doi:10.1386/atr_00028_1 · Cited by 8
The effect of psychological resilience on functional outcomes in post-operative hip fracture patients in a Singapore community hospital
Tan, C. Y. F., Fang, H. S. A., Koh, Y. L. E., & Low, L. L. (2020) · Proceedings of Singapore Healthcare · doi:10.1177/2010105820948531 · Cited by 8
A critical consideration of the role of mental toughness and pain in the acute pain experiences of athletes
Whitton, O. M., Bowtell, J. L., & Jones, M. I. (2020) · International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1750984x.2020.1836672 · Cited by 8
“The protective assets underlying resilience are suggested to include e ﬃ cacy (Windle, 2011) and optimism is widely considered a resilience factor (Gatchel et al., 2007).”
Background
A psychometric evaluation of the Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale for Australian Aboriginal youth
Gorman, E., Heritage, B., Shepherd, C., & Marriott, R. (2021) · Australian Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00050067.2020.1829453 · Cited by 8
“The mechanisms behind resilience, and whether it should be viewed as a process or an outcome are still debated (Windle, 2011).”
Background
Don’t Want It Anymore? Resilience as a Shield Against Social Media-Induced Overloads
Bermes, A., & Gromek, C.-L. (2021) · Lecture notes in information systems and organisation · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-86797-3_30 · Cited by 8
“Psychological research shows that protective factors often function in cumulative ways [29] and exist across three levels: individual, social, and community/society [1].”
Background
Familial risk for major depression: differential white matter alterations in healthy and depressed participants
Winter, A., Thiel, K., Meinert, S., Lemke, H., Waltemate, L., Breuer, F., Culemann, R., Pfarr, J., Stein, F., Brosch, K., et al. (2022) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329172200188x · Cited by 8
“2019; Windle, 2011).”
Count Your Life by Smiles and Tears: An Integrative Review on Resilience and Growing Older
Beeris, C., Niemeijer, A. R., & Machielse, A. (2022) · Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine · doi:10.1177/23337214221119050 · Cited by 8
“…of these multiple levels broadens the focus of this perspective beyond individual personality traits (Bergeman et al., 2020; Emlet et al., 2017; Hicks & Conner, 2014; Klokgieters et al., 2020; Randall, 2013; Smith-Osborne & Felderhoff, 2014; Szabó et al., 2020; Tay & Lim, 2020; Windle 2011).”
BackgroundInfluential
Psychological flexibility as a predictor of professional quality of life in newly qualified psychological therapy practitioners
Garner, E. V., Golijani-Moghaddam, N., & Sabin-Farrell, R. (2023) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2023.02.005 · Cited by 8
From theory to practice: translating the concept of cognitive resilience to novel therapeutic targets that maintain cognition in aging adults
Zammit, A. R., Bennett, D. A., & Buchman, A. S. (2024) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2023.1303912 · Cited by 8
“Cognitive resilience has been broadly conceptualized as the ability to maintain function despite physiologic or pathologic, stressors (Luthar et al., 2000; Wagnild and Collins, 2009; Windle, 2011; Fletcher and Sarkar, 2013; Jain et al., 2014; Whitson et al., 2016).”
Beyond the tent: Considerations for altering the standard refugee camp design for improved health outcomes
Byler, R., Gelaw, F., & Khoshnood, K. (2015) · IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology Conference (GHTC) · doi:10.1109/ghtc.2015.7343964 · Cited by 8
“replicated in mothers and children in a refugee setting [28,29].”
Background
Design and implementation of RESCUR in Sweden for promoting resilience in children: a study protocol
Eriksson, C. C.-G., Kimber, B., & Skoog, T. (2018) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-018-6145-7 · Cited by 10
The efficacy of a resilience-enhancement program for mothers in Japan based on emotion regulation: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial
Tobe, H., Sakka, M., & Kamibeppu, K. (2019) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-019-0344-6 · Cited by 8
Promoting resilience in work rehabilitation: development of a transdiagnostic intervention
Dulude, E., Coutu, M., & Durand, M. (2020) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09638288.2020.1744041 · Cited by 8
“Consequently, it is now recognised that resilience is not a stable trait and that it can be fostered through intervention [9,10].”
Background
Self-Compassion as a Compensatory Resilience Factor for the Negative Emotional Outcomes of Alcohol- Involved Sexual Assault among Undergraduates
Strickland, N. J., Wekerle, C., Kehayes, I. L., Thompson, K., Dobson, K. S., & Stewart, S. H. (2019) · International Journal of Child and Adolescent Resilience · doi:10.7202/1069076ar · Cited by 9
“Thus, compensatory factors might warrant being fostered among all people, and protective factors may be especially relevant for people who have experienced a specific trauma (e.g., AISA; Fergus & Zimmerman, 2005; Windle, 2011).”
Background
Quantitative Approaches to Examine Resilience and Aging
Kok, A. A. L., Huisman, M. A., Cosco, T. D., & Melis, R. J. F. (2020) · Risk, systems and decisions · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-57089-7_6 · Cited by 11
Social Ecological Resilience and Mental Wellbeing of Irish Emigrant Survivors of Clerical Institutional Childhood Abuse
Moore, J., Flynn, M., & Morgan, M. (2019) · Child Abuse Review · doi:10.1002/car.2548 · Cited by 8
Psychological Reaction to Physical Illness
Guthrie, E., & Mandell, M. (2023) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781911623533.004 · Cited by 8
Clergy Resilience: Accessing Supportive Resources to Balance the Impact of Role-Related Stress and Adversity
Clarke, M. A., Walker, K. D., Spurr, S., & Squires, V. (2022) · Journal of Pastoral Care & Counseling Advancing theory and professional practice through scholarly and reflective publications · doi:10.1177/15423050221090864 · Cited by 7
“In considering definitions and variables that affect resilience, this study defined resilience of professionals as a developmental process (Windle, 2011) that arises from a combination of individual, relational, and contextual variables (Gu & Day, 2007), including cognitive appraisal (Fletcher &…”
Background
Analysing university students’ life satisfaction through their socioemotional factors
García‐Martínez, I., Gavín-Chocano, Ó., López-Barajas, D. M., & León, S. P. (2023) · Revista de Investigación Educativa · doi:10.6018/rie.496341 · Cited by 11
Student burnout: a prediction model through structural equations modeling
Lorente, I. S., Guillén, C. T. C., Fernández-Velasco, R., Boegaerts, D. J., Moya-García, P., & Garrido‐Hernansaiz, H. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-04974-7 · Cited by 8
“Windle (2011) identified three essential elements for resilience to occur: substantial adversity or risk, skills or resources to counterbalance the impacts of adversity, and positive adaptation.”
Psychological Resilience in Post-acute Care: A Cross-Sectional Study of Health Care Workers in Singapore Community Hospitals
Teo, C. W., Ong, P. W., Low, L. L., Seah, S. S. Y., Leong, D. Q. X., & Tan, C. Y. F. (2024) · Journal of the American Medical Directors Association · doi:10.1016/j.jamda.2024.105029 · Cited by 8
An embedded qualitative study of the experiences of people with dementia, their caregivers and volunteer older adults who participated in the CREST resilience-building psychosocial intervention
Casey, D., Smyth, S., Doyle, P., Gallagher, N., O‘Sullivan, G., Murphy, K., Dröes, R., & Whelan, B. (2024) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-024-05374-7 · Cited by 7
“In particular, resilience-building interventions strengthen internal and external assets to allow a person to adapt to challenges or stress and remain psychologically, socially, and physically healthy [5, 6].”
Background
Emotional resilience and sense of danger among doctors in hospitals during periods of heightened tensions and warfare in Israel
Joachim, M. V., Joachim, D. A., Korn, L., Shapiro, Y., Laviv, A., & Zigdon, A. (2024) · Israel Journal of Health Policy Research · doi:10.1186/s13584-024-00655-3 · Cited by 7
Development and validation of the multi-dimensional health resilience scale for community-dwelling adults
Ge, L., Yip, W. F., Li, R., Seng, E. C. S., Ho, M. R., Ho, A. H. Y., Chua, E., Cheng, D., Leong, I. Y. O., Chieh, P. P., et al. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1452738 · Cited by 7
“Windle’s concept analysis (8) of resilience suggest that providing suitable resources (e.g., enhanced services and treatment and altered contextual factors) may help mitigate or prevent negative outcomes resulting from stressors or adversities.”
Unfolding key factors of resilience in ICT cognitive-motivational engagement: Global evidence from machine learning techniques
Zheng, J., Cheung, K., Sit, P., & Lam, C. (2025) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2025.102607 · Cited by 8
Resilience phenotypes derived from an active inference account of allostasis
Harrison, L., Gracias, A. J., Friston, K. J., & Buckwalter, J. G. (2025) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1524722 · Cited by 11
“…by this adaptive process (Boden et al., 2014), through successful negotiation and management of the stressors experienced across the lifespan (Windle, 2011) to result in what has been described as post-traumatic growth and psychosocial gains from adversity (Johnson and Boals, 2015; Mancini,…”
University students’ resilience in post-pandemic period: a socio-ecological perspective
Sheng, J., Ng, D. T. K., Tian, P., & Zheng, Z. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1574153 · Cited by 14
“While there is no universal definition of resilience, it is widely recognized as an individual’s capacity to overcome adversities and successfully adapt to their environment (Windle, 2011).”
Resilience for activity engagement among frail older adults: moderated mediation effect of social support
Oh, E., Kim, N., Gansukh, L., & Song, R. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-02854-2 · Cited by 9
“Resilience has long been recognized as a key determinant of health maintenance and daily functioning in older adults [38, 39].”

Authors: Windle, G.
Affiliations: Bangor University (GB)
Corresponding author: Windle, Gill
ORCID: Windle, Gill
Venue: Reviews in Clinical Gerontology
Publisher: Cambridge University Press (CUP)
Published: 2010-12-21
Volume: 21
Issue: 2
Pages: 152-169
ISSN: 0959-2598 (ISSN-L)
1469-9036
DOI: 10.1017/s0959259810000420
OpenAlex: W1992046328
Semantic Scholar: 520183eefb37770d6249ca717e53d90b6e0059b0
Cited by: 1,761
References: 97
Citations by year: 2026: 161 · 2025: 209 · 2024: 158 · 2023: 178 · 2022: 208 · 2021: 171 · 2020: 158 · 2019: 117 · 2018: 94 · 2017: 87 · 2016: 74 · 2015: 64 · 2014: 40 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 13
FWCI: 14.09
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified)
Locations: Reviews in Clinical Gerontology (publishedVersion)
Funders: Vanderbilt University
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Resilience and Mental Health
Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Health, psychology, and well-being
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Optimism, Hope, and Well-being
Keywords: resilience, conceptual analysis, life course, lifespan development, stress and trauma, adaptation, bouncing back, adversity, healthy aging, loss, cognitive decline, developmental psychology, interdisciplinary perspectives

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