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Cited by 213COVID-19 and Mental HealthCommunication and COVID-19 ImpactMedia Influence and Health

Media for Coping During COVID-19 Social Distancing: Stress, Anxiety, and Psychological Well-Being

Open access
Eden, Allison L., Johnson, Benjamin K., Reinecke, Leonard, Grady, Sara M.·2020·Frontiers in Psychology
DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.577639PMC PMC7775316
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Abstract

In spring 2020, COVID-19 and the ensuing social distancing and stay-at-home orders instigated abrupt changes to employment and educational infrastructure, leading to uncertainty, concern, and stress among United States college students. The media consumption patterns of this and other social groups across the globe were affected, with early evidence suggesting viewers were seeking both pandemic-themed media and reassuring, familiar content. A general increase in media consumption, and increased consumption of specific types of content, may have been due to media use for coping strategies. This paper examines the relationship between the stress and anxiety of university students and their strategic use of media for coping during initial social distancing periods in March-April 2020 using data from a cross-sectional survey. We examine links between specific types of media use with psychological well-being concepts, and examine the moderating roles of traits (hope, optimism, and resilience) as buffers against negative relationships between stress and anxiety and psychological well-being. Our findings indicate that stress was linked to more hedonic and less eudaimonic media use, as well as more avoidant and escapist media-based coping. Anxiety, on the other hand, was linked to more media use in general, specifically more eudaimonic media use and a full range of media-based coping strategies. In turn, escapist media was linked to negative affect, while reframing media and eudaimonic media were linked to positive affect. Avoidant coping was tied to poorer mental health, and humor coping was tied to better mental health. Hedonic and need-satisfying media use were linked to more flourishing. Hope, optimism, and resilience were all predictive of media use, with the latter two traits moderating responses to stress and anxiety. The findings give a nuanced portrait of college students’ media use during a pandemic-induced shutdown, showing that media use is closely intertwined with well-being in both adaptive and maladaptive patterns.

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Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a cross-sectional survey of 425 U.S. university students during initial COVID-19 social distancing, stress and anxiety were linked to distinct patterns of media use for coping, with some strategies associated with better and others with worse well-being. Media use partially mediated these relationships, and trait optimism, hope, and resilience moderated several paths.

Key findings

  • Stress was associated with more hedonic media use (β = .129, p < .05) and less eudaimonic media use (β = −.167, p < .05), as well as more avoidant (β = .128, p < .05) and escapist (β = .133, p < .05) media coping. Anxiety was associated with more media exposure (β = .160, p < .05), more eudaimonic media use (β = .159, p < .05), and all five media-coping dimensions, including problem-focused (β = .263, p < .001), avoidant (β = .364, p < .001), escapist (β = .424, p < .001), reframing (β = .233, p < .001), and humor coping (β = .238, p < .001).
  • Escapist coping was associated with less positive affect (β = −.162, p < .001), avoidant coping with lower mental health (β = −.157, p < .001), and reframing coping with more positive affect (β = .136, p < .01); humor coping was associated with higher mental health (β = .106, p < .01). Hedonic media (β = .157, p < .001) and media need satisfaction (β = .180, p < .001) were associated with more flourishing, and eudaimonic media with more positive affect (β = .094, p < .05).
  • Mediation tests found reframing coping suppressed anxiety’s effect on affect (β = .032, SE = .013, 95% CI [.009, .061]), humor coping suppressed anxiety’s effect on mental health (β = .025, SE = .012, 95% CI [.006, .051]), and eudaimonic media suppressed anxiety’s effects on affect (β = .015, SE = .009, 95% CI [.001, .036]) and flourishing (β = .015, SE = .010, 95% CI [.000, .037]). Negative indirect effects appeared for escapist coping on affect and avoidant coping on mental health.
  • Optimism, hope, and resilience showed main effects and moderation: optimism negatively predicted avoidant coping and positively predicted affect, mental health, and flourishing; hope positively predicted media exposure, several coping styles, and flourishing; resilience negatively predicted escapist and humor coping and positively predicted affect and mental health. Optimism and resilience moderated stress-to-coping paths, and moderated mediation was found for optimism and resilience via reframing, avoidant, humor, and escapist coping.

Methods

  • Cross-sectional survey of students at two American universities that canceled face-to-face instruction the week of March 9, 2020; data collected March 23–April 17, 2020. After screening, N = 425 (M age = 20.19, SD = 2.18; 68.5% women).
  • Measures included the 14-item Perceived Stress Scale, 7-item GAD-7, self-reported media exposure across 12 media types, a 28-item Brief COPE adapted to media use, hedonic and eudaimonic media motivations, intrinsic need satisfaction via media, trait optimism, hope, resilience, and outcomes of affect, mental health, and flourishing.
  • Analyses included descriptive statistics and correlations, exploratory factor analysis of media coping, hierarchical regression models, and parallel mediation/moderation tests using PROCESS with 10,000 bootstrap samples.

Limitations

  • Stated by the authors: the cross-sectional design cannot establish causal direction; the non-probability sample from two large public universities is not representative of all U.S. college students; self-reported media use may inflate relationships with well-being; the measure did not capture media multitasking or separate multitasking from solo media use; some effect sizes were small; and multiple testing of mediators and moderators may have inflated alpha error.
  • Evident from the text: the sample was predominantly women (68.5%) and White/Caucasian (78.1%), which further limits generalizability beyond the authors’ stated non-representativeness.
  • Evident from the text: several findings rely on small effects and near-zero estimates, and the authors caution against overinterpreting them without replication in larger samples.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.577639

Cites

86 of 86 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 89 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Stress was linked to more avoidant media-based coping.

    “Our findings indicate that stress was linked to more hedonic and less eudaimonic media use, as well as more avoidant and escapist media-based coping.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Humor coping was tied to better mental health.

    “Avoidant coping was tied to poorer mental health, and humor coping was tied to better mental health.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Stress was linked to more hedonic media use.

    “Our findings indicate that stress was linked to more hedonic and less eudaimonic media use, as well as more avoidant and escapist media-based coping.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Stress was linked to more escapist media-based coping.

    “Our findings indicate that stress was linked to more hedonic and less eudaimonic media use, as well as more avoidant and escapist media-based coping.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Resilience moderated responses to stress and anxiety.

    “Hope, optimism, and resilience were all predictive of media use, with the latter two traits moderating responses to stress and anxiety.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 54
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 2
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    Findingown data

    Reports of stress and anxiety were very present in our sample, and they were, as predicted, negatively associated with psychological well-being indicators of positive affect, mental health, and (in the case of stress) flourishing.

    “First, we would note that reports of stress and anxiety were very present in our sample, and they were, as predicted, negatively associated with psychological well-being indicators of positive affect, mental health, and (in the case of stress) flourishing.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingown data

    Although, like stress, anxiety was associated with escapist and avoidant coping, anxious individuals also used media for problem-focused coping as well as to reframe the current situation, and to provide humor and insight.

    “Although, like stress, anxiety was associated with escapist and avoidant coping, anxious individuals also used media for problem-focused coping as well as to reframe the current situation, and to provide humor and insight.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingreasoning

    Students reporting stress and students reporting anxiety both reported using media to cope in short-term ways (e.g., escapism); anxious individuals were more likely to report adaptive media coping (e.g., problem-focused media use).

    “While students reporting stress and students reporting anxiety both reported using media to cope in short-term ways, such as escapism, anxious individuals were far more likely to report adaptive forms of media coping, such as problem-focused media use.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingown data

    Stress is not associated with media exposure.

    “Yet, we would note that stress was not associated with overall increases in media exposure”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingown data

    Partial support was obtained for H1, H2, H4, H5, H6, H7, and H8, and a number of interactions were found for RQ1, RQ2, and RQ3.

    “Partial support was obtained for H1, H2, H4, H5, H6, H7, and H8, and a number of interactions were found for RQ1, RQ2, and RQ3.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingreasoning

    Anxious individuals used both short-term emotion-focused coping strategies (avoidance, escapism, humor) and problem-focused media coping.

    “Anxious individuals, in contrast, seem to demonstrate a twofold strategy: while they too addressed their negative affective state with short-term, emotion-focused coping strategies such as avoidance, escapism, and humor-based coping, they also use media for problem-focused coping, presumably to address the more persistent nature of anxiety.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingreasoning

    Moderated mediation effects for trait optimism and resilience showed mixed patterns, mostly driven by those with lower levels of the resiliency factors.

    “The moderated mediation effects found for trait optimism and resilience showed mixed patterns, mostly driven by those with lower levels of the resiliency factors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingown data

    The three trait variables moderated some relationships of media use with psychological well-being and some indirect effects of stress and anxiety on psychological well-being via media use.

    “Finally, the three trait variables also moderated some of the relationships of media use with psychological well-being as well as some of the indirect effect of stress and anxiety on psychological well-being via media use.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Psychological well-being variables (affect, mental health, and flourishing) are outcomes of media use.

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    Findingown data

    Trait resiliency factors play an important role in individual responses to stress, and media use plays a role in the stress-coping context.

    “The present study further reveals the important role of trait resiliency factors in individual responses to stress, and the role of media use in the stress-coping context.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingnone given

    Individuals with high hope experienced less flourishing when anxious, and those with low hope experienced less flourishing in response to humor.

    “Those with high hope experienced less flourishing when anxious, and those with low amounts of hope experienced less flourishing in response to humor.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingown data

    Users' traits and motivations interact with media use behavior to influence functional and dysfunctional outcomes of media-based coping, and a range of coping styles may be associated with media use.

    “The findings reported here demonstrate users’ traits and motivations interact with media use behavior to influence functional and dysfunctional outcomes of media-based coping, and results clearly demonstrate a range of coping styles may be associated with media use.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Psychological well-being variables (affect, mental health, and flourishing) are outcomes of media use.

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    Findingown data

    Optimism and trait resilience were negative predictors of media use for coping, while hope showed positive associations with three out of five media-related coping strategies.

    “Interestingly, while both optimism and trait resilience were negative predictors of media use for coping, hope showed positive associations with three out of the five media-related coping strategies.”
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    Findingown data

    All three resiliency factors showed negative zero-order correlations with stress; optimism and resilience also showed negative zero-order correlations with anxiety.

    “First, our results replicate the findings of previous research on the beneficial effects of psychological resilience: all three resiliency factors showed negative zero-order correlations with stress, and optimism and resilience also showed negative zero-order correlations with anxiety.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingreasoning

    Trait variables increased the likelihood of both adaptive and maladaptive media-related coping attempts in reaction to stress and anxiety, increasing both positive and negative indirect effects of stress on psychological well-being via media coping.

    “Trait variables increased the likelihood for both adaptive and maladaptive media-related coping attempts as a reaction to stress and anxiety, and thus increased both the positive and negative indirect effects of stress on psychological well-being via media coping.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Psychological well-being variables (affect, mental health, and flourishing) are outcomes of media use.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Stress can lead to negative psychological and physiological outcomes such as unhealthy behaviors and increased anxiety.

    “stress can then lead to many negative psychological and physiological outcomes such as unhealthy behaviors and increased anxiety (Segrin, 1999; Hudd et al., 2000).”
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    Psychological stress usually stems from a disconnect between one's available resources and the demands they face.

    “Psychological stress is many-faceted, but usually stems from a disconnect (or disequilibrium) between one’s available resources and the demands they face (Lazarus, 1966; Folkman et al., 1986).”
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    Premisecitation

    Escapism through media use can be a functional short-term strategy that may temporarily help reduce stress and anxiety and prepare for subsequent problem-focused coping attempts.

    “other conceptualizations suggests that escapism through media use can be a functional short-term strategy, in that it may temporarily help the individual reduce stress and anxiety, and prepare for subsequent problem-focused coping attempts (Halfmann and Reinecke, 2021).”
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    Premisecitation

    Wolfers and Schneider (2020) identified three major lines of research investigating media and coping: media as a stress coping tool, media as mood management, and problematic media use as dysfunctional attempts at coping.

    “Wolfers and Schneider (2020) recently identified three major lines of research investigating media and coping: (a) media as a stress coping tool, (b) media as mood management, and (c) problematic media use as a form of dysfunctional attempts at coping.”
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    Premisecitation

    When confronted with stress, individuals seek support from social networks, hobbies, and leisure activities.

    “When confronted with stress, individuals seek support from social networks, hobbies, and leisure activities (Kitzrow, 2003).”
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    Coping is multi-dimensional and encompasses both problem-focused and emotion-focused strategies.

    “Coping is multi-dimensional and encompasses both problem-focused and emotion-focused strategies (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984).”
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    Premisecitation

    Adolescents who reported stress in specific domains preferred to watch talk shows on these topics.

    “adolescents who reported stress in specific domains (e.g., parents, peers, appearance) preferred to watch talk shows on these topics (Trepte et al., 2001).”
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    Problem-focused coping, positive reappraisal, and meaning creation reliably predict positive emotional outcomes.

    “while problem-focused coping, positive reappraisal, and meaning creation reliably predict positive emotional outcomes (Folkman and Moskowitz, 2000).”
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    Disruption of daily life and routine during stressful events may lead to functional impairment and post-traumatic stress outcomes.

    “the disruption of daily life and routine during stressful events may lead to functional impairment and post-traumatic stress outcomes (Pat-Horenczyk et al., 2006).”
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    Premisecitation

    Eudaimonic entertainment is a source of more complex forms of psychological well-being, such as feeling self-transcendent emotions like elevation, awe, or gratitude.

    “while eudaimonic entertainment has also been identified as a source of more complex forms of psychological well-being, such as feeling self-transcendent emotions such as elevation, awe, or gratitude (e.g., Oliver et al., 2018; Janicke-Bowles et al., 2019).”
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    The state perspective suggests that resilience describes the dynamic process of a successful response to a specific stressor or life event.

    “whereas the state perspective suggests that resilience describes the dynamic process of a successful response to a specific stressor or life event (Aburn et al., 2016).”
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    Both optimism and hope have consistently been linked to positive adaptation and increased psychological well-being.

    “Both variables have consistently been linked to positive adaptation and increased psychological well-being (Alarcon et al., 2013).”
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    Premisecitation

    Hedonic media entertainment is associated with increased positive affect and decreased negative affect.

    “Hedonic media entertainment has primarily associated with increased well-being in the form of increased positive and decreased negative affect (for an overview, see Reinecke, 2017)”
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    Resilience refers to positive adaptation after adversity.

    “The theoretical concept of resilience refers to positive adaptation after adversity (Fletcher and Sarkar, 2013; Kalisch et al., 2017).”
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    Positive emotions associated with hedonic media enjoyment can have short-term psychological benefits and may be associated with stress-related coping.

    “In line with Nabi and Krcmar (2004), we posit that the positive emotions associated with such hedonic forms of media enjoyment can have short-term psychological benefits, and this may be associated with stress-related coping.”
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    Several individual difference variables facilitate positive adaptation to stressors and adversity, referred to as resiliency factors.

    “In addition to general trait resilience, several individual difference variables are known to facilitate positive adaptation to stressors and adversity, and these are often referred to as resiliency factors (Windle, 2011; Pangallo et al., 2015).”
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    Premisecitation

    The trait perspective treats resilience as a tendency to show positive adaptation to adversity in various situations and contexts of life.

    “The trait perspective treats resilience as a tendency to show positive adaptation to adversity in various situations and contexts of life (e.g., Smith et al., 2008)”
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    Optimism and hope have frequently been identified as resiliency factors.

    “In this context, two variables have frequently been identified as resiliency factors: optimism and hope (Gillespie et al., 2007; Pangallo et al., 2015).”
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    Eudaimonic entertainment may provide important role models for dealing with critical life events.

    “Previous research suggests that such forms of eudaimonic entertainment may provide important role models for dealing with critical life events (Greenwood and Long, 2015)”
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    Two theoretical perspectives differentiate resilience as either a relatively stable trait or a dynamic process.

    “Two theoretical perspectives differentiate resilience as either a relatively stable trait or a dynamic process (Fletcher and Sarkar, 2013; Pangallo et al., 2015).”
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    Initial evidence suggests that resiliency factors, such as trait optimism, may influence the individual preference for hedonic versus eudaimonic media content.

    “Initial evidence suggests that resiliency factors, such as trait optimism, may influence the individual preference for hedonic versus eudaimonic media content (Oliver and Raney, 2011).”
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    Adversity can occur in the form of chronic, long-lasting, systemic stressors or acute stressors.

    “Adversity can occur both in the form of chronic, long-lasting, and systemic stressors (such as ongoing abuse), or in the form of acute stressors, (including isolated events such as personal loss or changes in life conditions; Pangallo et al., 2015).”
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    Media exposure is a frequently used tool for stress coping and can significantly facilitate the coping process.

    “Extant work on media use and coping clearly suggests that media exposure is a frequently used tool for stress coping and can significantly facilitate the coping process (Wolfers and Schneider, 2020).”
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    Premisecitation

    Adversity may refer both to severe and traumatic life events and to more common and less disruptive stressors such as daily hassles.

    “Furthermore, adversity may refer both to severe and traumatic life events but also to more common and less disruptive stressors such as daily hassles (Fletcher and Sarkar, 2013; Chmitorz et al., 2020).”
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    Study design and conductown data

    The five media coping factors represented distinct coping dimensions with good face and content validity: problem-focused, avoidant, escapist, reframing, and humor-based coping.

    “The factors represented distinct coping dimensions with good face and content validity, of problem-focused, avoidant, escapist, reframing, and humor-based coping (Table 2).”
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    Study design and conductnone given

    All procedures and measures were approved by the ethical board of each university.

    “All procedures and measures were approved by the ethical board of each university.”
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    Study design and conductown data

    Items with loadings below 0.5 were omitted, with the exception of one item loading 0.497.

    “Items with loadings below 0.5 were omitted (with the exception of one item loading 0.497).”
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    Premisecitation

    Exposure to media content may strengthen resiliency, by eliciting feelings of hope.

    “In turn, exposure to media content may also strengthen resiliency, by eliciting feelings of hope for example (Prestin and Nabi, 2020).”
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    Study design and conductown data

    Screening criteria removed 29 incomplete cases and 5 cases that reported more than 24 h per day on a single media activity, leaving N = 425 for analysis.

    “Screening criteria removed 29 incomplete cases as well as 5 cases that reported more than 24 h per day on a single media activity. This left N = 425 for analysis.”
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    Premisecitation

    Trait resilience significantly influences individual coping styles, with a positive correlation between trait resilience and active coping and positive reframing and a negative correlation with behavioral disengagement, denial, and self-blame.

    “Furthermore, previous research suggests trait resilience significantly influences individual coping styles, revealing a positive correlation between trait resilience and active coping and positive reframing and a negative correlation with behavioral disengagement, denial, and self-blame (Smith et al., 2008).”
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    Interpretationown data

    Different media-related coping strategies are associated with different indicators of well-being, potentially suggesting adaptive or maladaptive functions.

    “This suggests that different media-related coping strategies were associated with different indicators of well-being, potentially suggesting adaptive or maladaptive functions.”
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    Study design and conductown data

    The study was preregistered.

    “The study preregistration, data, and materials are available at https://osf.io/ktwrn/.”
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    Study design and conductreasoning

    A total of 112 participants reported media exposure > 24 h in a typical day, but only those reporting more than 24 h for a single medium were excluded due to multitasking possibilities.

    “A total of n = 112 reported media exposure > 24 h in a typical day. Given multitasking possibilities, we only excluded those reporting more than 24 h for a single medium.”
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    Premisecitation

    The presence or absence of other coping resources, such as social support, moderates the effects of daily hassles on the frequency of media use for stress coping.

    “Research on media use for stress coping demonstrates that the presence or absence of other coping resources, such as social support, moderates the effects of daily hassles on the frequency of media use for stress coping (Reinecke, 2009a).”
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    Study design and conductreasoning

    The five media coping dimensions are consistent with literature on coping and media, so they are treated as distinct variables.

    “These are consistent with literature on coping and media, so we treat these five dimensions as distinct variables.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Media psychologists have demonstrated media may be sought for a variety of uses and may serve a number of diverse gratifications for users.

    “However, media psychologists have amply demonstrated media may be sought for a variety of uses and may serve a number of diverse gratifications for users (Rubin, 2002).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rubin, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Those very low on optimism showed mediation via less reframing, and those very high on optimism showed suppression via more reframing via media.

    “Those very low on optimism showed mediation via less reframing, and those very high on optimism showed suppression via more reframing via media.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Stressed yet resilient people showed more avoidant media coping behaviors, which were associated with reduced levels of positive mental health.

    “In other words, stressed yet resilient people showed more avoidant media coping behaviors, which were associated with reduced levels of positive mental health.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Differentiating media-based coping styles can help explain diverse outcomes of media use in times of distress and address conflicting findings on media use and well-being.

    “These findings suggest that differentiating media-based coping styles has the potential to explicate the diverse outcomes associated with media use in times of distress – and potentially address the underlying complexity which drives the conflicting findings associating media use and well-being in other literature.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Resilient individuals under stress were more likely to use media for problem-focused coping, avoidant coping, and humor coping.

    “Resilient individuals under stress were more likely to use media for problem-focused coping, avoidant coping, and humor coping.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Findings suggest trait resilience, hope, and optimism interact to influence these effects, and that stress and anxiety were both associated with adaptive and non-adaptive forms of media coping.

    “Further, findings suggest trait resilience, hope, and optimism interact to influence these effects, and that stress and anxiety were both associated with adaptive and non-adaptive forms of media coping.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These results underscore the relevance of media use for coping during the pandemic, and the potential importance of media use as a psychological resource in times of crisis.

    “These results underscore the relevance of media use for coping during the pandemic, and the potential importance of media use as a psychological resource in times of crisis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Anxiety was associated with more media exposure, and the effect of this greater quantity of media use on flourishing was negative for very hopeful individuals and positive for very un-hopeful individuals.

    “Anxiety was associated with more media exposure, and the effect of this greater quantity of media use on flourishing was negative for very hopeful individuals and positive for very un-hopeful individuals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    This appears to be a more adaptive form of media coping, as eudaimonic media was associated overall with more positive affect.

    “This appears to be a more adaptive form of media coping, as eudaimonic media was associated overall with more positive affect.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Stress was not associated with overall increases in media exposure, suggesting that the style of media coping and the type of media used are more relevant to understanding dysfunctional coping via media than the mere quantity of media exposure.

    “Yet, we would note that stress was not associated with overall increases in media exposure, suggesting that the style of media coping and the type of media used are more relevant to understanding dysfunctional coping via media than the mere quantity of media exposure.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    When stressed, students turned to the media for escape, and to avoid unpleasant associations with the source of their stress, which may be a maladaptive coping technique for overall psychological well-being outcomes.

    “Overall, these results suggest that when stressed, students turned to the media for escape, and to avoid unpleasant associations with the source of their stress, which may be a maladaptive coping technique for overall psychological well-being outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationown data

    Resilient people (1 SD above the mean) had a positive effect of stress on escapism which was then linked to negative affect.

    “Resilient people (1 SD above the mean optimism score) had a positive effect of stress on escapism which was then linked to negative affect.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The evidence presented here suggests that using media for coping is not only common, but that different types of media experiences are sought by stressed versus anxious individuals, and that different coping styles associated with these consumption patterns are associated with diverse outcomes relevant for psychological well-being.

    “The evidence presented here suggests that using media for coping is not only common, but that different types of media experiences are sought by stressed versus anxious individuals, and that different coping styles associated with these consumption patterns are associated with diverse outcomes relevant for psychological well-being.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Moderate and high resilience facilitated positive effects of anxiety on humor coping, which benefited mental health, suppressing anxiety's overall effect.

    “Moderate and high resilience (i.e., mean scores or higher) facilitated positive effects of anxiety on humor coping, which benefited mental health, suppressing anxiety’s overall effect.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Although anxiety was generally associated with more escapism, this relationship was stronger among more resilient individuals.

    “Although anxiety was generally associated with more escapism, this relationship was stronger among more resilient individuals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Stress refers to more ephemeral perceptions of situational threat, whereas anxiety refers to more generalized and long-lasting feelings of worry and nervousness.

    “Whereas stress refers to more ephemeral perceptions of situational threat (Cohen et al., 1983), anxiety as conceptualized by Spitzer et al. (2006) refers to more generalized and long-lasting feelings of worry and nervousness.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Cohen et al., 1983 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Spitzer et al., 2006 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Extremely stressed pessimists had decreased humor media use, while extreme optimists had greater humor media use which suppressed the effect of stress on mental health.

    “Extremely stressed pessimists had decreased humor media use, while extreme optimists had greater humor media use which suppressed the effect of stress on mental health.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Human Research Protection Program, Michigan State University, and the Behavioral/NonMedical Institutional Review Board, University of Florida.

    “The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Human Research Protection Program, Michigan State University, and the Behavioral/NonMedical Institutional Review Board, University of Florida.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

    “The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The measure did not allow probing into media multitasking or separating multitasking from solo media use.

    “our measure did not allow for specific probing into the use of media multitasking, or to separate multitasking from solo media use.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Individuals high in resiliency traits may generally react more resolutely to perceived stress, and media use is an important tool in these coping efforts.

    “This may suggest that individuals high in these resiliency traits may generally react more resolutely to perceived stress and that media use is an important tool in these coping efforts.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Media are one piece in the puzzle of coping and well-being, especially during a complex and dynamic situation such as a global pandemic.

    “Media are one piece in the puzzle of coping and well-being, especially during a complex and dynamic situation such as a global pandemic.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Small effect sizes may reflect the true parameter in the population, particularly for distal effects such as trait variables on state appraisals.

    “the effect sizes may reflect the true parameter in the population, particularly when dealing with distal effects such as those of trait variables on state appraisals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Pre-existing levels of psychological well-being likely impact media use and may also influence stress and anxiety.

    “it is likely that pre-existing levels of psychological well-being impact media use (cf. Zillmann and Vorderer, 2000) and they may also influence stress and anxiety.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zillmann and Vorderer, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The sample was non-probability, drawn from two large public universities in different parts of the country, and should not be taken as representative of all American college students.

    “the sample was non-probability, and drawn from two large public universities in different parts of the country, so should not be taken as representative of all American college students.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Individuals high in trait resilience, hope, and optimism were less negatively affected by COVID-19 related social distancing measures and more successfully upheld psychological well-being in the face of adversity.

    “In sum, this suggests that individuals high in trait resilience, hope, and optimism were less negatively affected by the COVID-19 related social distancing measures, and more successfully upheld psychological well-being in the face of adversity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Psychological well-being variables (affect, mental health, and flourishing) are outcomes of media use.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Drawing inferences from these data about other populations' media use and psychological well-being in the wake of the pandemic should be met with caution.

    “More broadly, drawing inferences from these data about other populations’ media use and psychological well-being in the wake of the pandemic should be met with caution.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Participants provided informed consent to participate in this study.

    “The participants provided their informed consent to participate in this study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Mental health problems, and heightened stress in particular, are rampant on American college campuses.

    “mental health problems, and heightened stress in particular, are rampant on American college campuses (Beiter et al., 2015; Francis and Horn, 2017)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Beiter et al., 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Francis and Horn, 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Negative associations between optimism and avoidant coping, and between resilience and escapist and humor coping, correspond with previous research showing media are more frequently used for stress coping when other coping resources are limited.

    “The negative associations found between optimism and avoidant coping, and also resilience with escapist and humor coping (Table 5), correspond with previous research demonstrating that media are more frequently used for stress coping when other coping resources are limited (e.g., Reinecke, 2009a, b).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Reinecke, 2009a, b

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Individuals high in optimism and trait resilience experienced less stress and anxiety and thus had a lower need for coping.

    “presumably because individuals high in these traits experienced less stress and anxiety and thus had a lower need for coping.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The results reported here speak to the broader context of the COVID-19 crisis and point to continued avenues for inquiry.

    “The results reported here, at a minimum, speak to this broader context, and point to continued avenues for inquiry exploring the variety of ways people use media to cope with new stresses and anxieties.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The COVID-19 crisis and ensuing social distancing policies impacted people all around the globe.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Including multiple testing of mediators and moderators in one study may have led to alpha error inflation.

    “including multiple testing of mediators and moderators in one study may have led to alpha error inflation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Media may be a productive tool for strategic coping, but it is not a panacea.

    “Media may be a productive tool for strategic coping, however it is not a panacea.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The dataset is available in an online repository at https://osf.io/ktwrn.

    “The dataset presented in this study can be found in an online repository at: https://osf.io/ktwrn.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The measure validly assesses the extent and intensity of media exposure but less so the precise hours and minutes devoted to media versus non-media activities.

    “In this way, our measure does validly assess the extent and intensity of media exposure, but less so the precise hours and minutes devoted to media versus non-media activities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Media exposure scores may in many cases reflect the accumulation of multiple media used concurrently.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Media use is a common coping tactic for American college students.

    “prior literature demonstrates media use is a common coping tactic for this audience (Prestin and Nabi, 2020).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Prestin and Nabi, 2020

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Hope and coping with life adversities mutually reinforce each other, and hope helps the individual persevere in coping efforts.

    “Folkman (2010) proposes that hope and coping with life adversities mutually reinforce each other, and that hope helps the individual to persevere in coping efforts.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Folkman (2010) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The study attempted to mitigate limitations of self-reported media use by asking about specific media platforms and average daily hours in the context of social distancing, but this remains a limitation.

    “We attempted to mitigate the limitations of self-reported media use by asking participants about a variety of specific media platforms, and asked them to report average daily hours for each platform in the context of social distancing, however we note this as a limitation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
88 of 88

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Whether trait resilience patterns apply to media use for coping has not yet been demonstrated.

    “Whether these patterns also apply to media use for coping, however, has not yet been demonstrated.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Stress and anxiety are important factors in psychological well-being more generally.

    “On the contrary, stress and anxiety are important factors in psychological well-being more generally.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The stress and anxiety reported by students resulted from the COVID-19 situation and associated social distancing.

    “acute stress and anxiety resulting from the COVID-19 situation were associated with an increased tendency to use media as a coping tool”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The COVID-19 crisis and ensuing social distancing policies impacted people all around the globe.

    “the COVID-19 crisis and the ensuing policies of social distancing and mass closures impacted people all around the globe.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Psychological well-being variables (affect, mental health, and flourishing) are outcomes of media use.

    “our theoretically grounded model conceptualizes psychological well-being variables (affect, mental health, and flourishing) as outcomes of media use”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Media exposure scores may in many cases reflect the accumulation of multiple media used concurrently.

    “We believe that the media exposure scores in our data may in many cases reflect the accumulation of multiple media which were used concurrently.”
6 of 6

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Mental-health scores exceed the stated response scale

    Major

    The mental-health measure is described as running from 1 to 4, but Table 1 reports an observed maximum of 5.00.

  • Claim that all traits positively predicted all well-being outcomes conflicts with Table 6

    Minor

    Table 6 reports a negative coefficient for hope predicting mental health and no statistically significant coefficients for hope predicting affect or resilience predicting flourishing. It therefore does not support the claim that all three traits positively predicted all three outcomes.

  • Descriptions of reframing effects for pessimists conflict

    Minor

    One passage says reframing had more negative effects on affect for more pessimistic individuals; the discussion instead describes its effects on their affective states as helpful.

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 9

  1. Gold, 2020, Netflix and YouTube are Slowing Down in Europe to Keep the Internet From Breaking.
  2. Hess, 2020, How Coronavirus Dramatically Changed College for Over 14 Million Students.
  3. Hudd, 2000, Stress at college: effects omn health habits, health status and self-esteem., Coll. Student J., 34, 217
  4. 2020, COVID-19: Tracking the Impact on the Entertainment Industry.
  5. Müller, 2016, Excessive and addictive use of the internet: prevalence, related contents, predictors, and psychological consequences, The Routledge Handbook of Media Use and Well-Being: International Perspectives on Theory and Research on Positive Media Effects, 223
  6. Sutton, 2020, Pandemic-Related Programming Surges on Netflix Amid Coronavirus Spread.
  7. Szalai, 2020, Netflix Agrees to Limit Streaming Traffic in Europe to Ease Coronavirus-Related Congestion.
  8. Weissbrot, 2020, Daytime is Streaming Time: TV Viewing Habits in the Time of COVID-19.
  9. 2020, Coronavirus: Impact on Young People With Mental Health Needs.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Eden, A. L., Johnson, B. K., Reinecke, L., & Grady, S. M.
Affiliations
  • Michigan State University (US)
  • University of Florida (US)
  • Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (DE)
Corresponding author
Eden, Allison L.
ORCID
Venue
Frontiers in Psychology
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2020-12-18
Volume
11
Pages
577639-577639
ISSN
1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fpsyg.2020.577639
PMC
PMC7775316
OpenAlex
W3112675699
Cited by
204
References
86
Citations by year
2026: 16 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 47 · 2021: 32
FWCI
11.81
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
  • Social Sciences › Communication › Communication and COVID-19 Impact
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Literature and Literary Theory › Media Influence and Health
Keywords
COVID-19 pandemic, social distancing, stress, anxiety, psychological well-being, university students, avoidance coping, coping humor, hope, optimism, resilience, eudaimonia, positive and negative affect

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

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