Ultra-Short-Chain PFASs in the Sources of German Drinking Water: Prevalent, Overlooked, Difficult to Remove, and Unregulated
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Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have been a focal point of environmental chemistry and chemical regulation in recent years, culminating in a shift from individual PFAS regulation toward a PFAS group regulatory approach in Europe. PFASs are a highly diverse group of substances, and knowledge about this group is still scarce beyond the well-studied, legacy long-chain, and short-chain perfluorocarboxylates (PFCAs) and perfluorosulfonates (PFSAs). Herein, quantitative and semiquantitative data for 43 legacy short-chain and ultra-short-chain PFASs (≤2 perfluorocarbon atoms for PFCAs, ≤3 for PFSAs and other PFASs) in 46 water samples collected from 13 different sources of German drinking water are presented. The PFASs considered include novel compounds like hexafluoroisopropanol, bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, and tris(pentafluoroethyl)trifluorophosphate. The ultra-short-chain PFASs trifluoroacetate, perfluoropropanoate, and trifluoromethanesulfonate were ubiquitous and present at the highest concentrations (98% of sum target PFAS concentrations). "PFAS total" parameters like the adsorbable organic fluorine (AOF) and total oxidizable precursor (TOP) assay were found to provide only an incomplete picture of PFAS contamination in these water samples by not capturing these highly prevalent ultra-short-chain PFASs. These ultra-short-chain PFASs represent a major challenge for drinking water production and show that regulation in the form of preventive measures is required to manage them.
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Some studies applying the TOP assay to surface and groundwater report considerable increases in PFAS concentrations, although the increases are not consistent in the literature.
“Whereas limited studies have applied the TOP assay to surface and groundwater, some report considerable increases in PFAS concentrations, although the increases are not consistent in the literature 41,45,46 .”
From Underestimated burden of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in global surface waters and groundwaters (2024) · cites this paper as [46]
NTf2 had been widely detected in drinking water, seawater, and soil.
“It had been widely detected in drinking water (Neuwald et al., 2022), seawater (Wang et al., 2023a), and soil (Zhao et al., 2023).”
From Molecular characteristics of emerging perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and dissolved organic matter (DOM) in surface waters around fluorine-related industries in a Chinese Megacity (2025) · cites this paper as Neuwald et al., 2022
NTf2 is a fluorinated anion of ionic liquids and is used in lithium-ion batteries, solid-state supercapacitors, and extraction agents.
“This compound was a fluorinated anion of ionic liquids (Neuwald et al., 2022) and was used in lithium-ion batteries, solid-state supercapacitors and extraction agents (Rensmo et al., 2023; Zhao et al., 2023).”
From Molecular characteristics of emerging perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and dissolved organic matter (DOM) in surface waters around fluorine-related industries in a Chinese Megacity (2025) · cites this paper as Neuwald et al., 2022
Previous investigations at the laboratory and field scales affirm that TFSA behaviour is totally recalcitrant.
“which contrast with previous investigations at the laboratory (Tisler et al., 2022) and field (Neuwald et al., 2022) scales affirming its behaviour is totally recalcitrant.”
From Occurrence and fate of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in an urban aquifer located at the Besòs River Delta (Spain) (2024) · cites this paper as Neuwald et al., 2022
PFCA and PFSA containing more than 11 (PFUnA) and 9 (PFNS) carbon bonds, respectively, are less mobile than their shorter chain homologues.
“PFCA and PFSA containing more than 11 (PFUnA) and 9 (PFNS) carbon bonds, respectively, are less mobile than their shorter chain homologues (Neuwald et al., 2022).”
From Occurrence and fate of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in an urban aquifer located at the Besòs River Delta (Spain) (2024) · cites this paper as Neuwald et al., 2022
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Meta-analysis evaluates toxicity of PFAS to microalgae: Mechanisms and ecological risks
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A Pilot Study of Bis-perfluoroalkyl Sulfonimides in Dust from E-waste and Urban Regions
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“Emerging alternatives to PFAS, including short and ultra-short-chain homologs, fluorotelomers, and precursors (McDonough et al. 2022; Neuwald et al. 2022), have been introduced as a result of stricter regulations or voluntary manufacturer phase-out actions (Bock and Laird 2022).”
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“However, growing evidenceindicatesthatshort-chainPFASarenotinherentlysaferastheyare highlypersistent,moreenvironmentallymobile,hardertoremovefrom drinkingwater,andbioaccumulateinhumans,animals,andplants 25,26 .”
Analysis of ultra-short-chain and short-chain PFAS in environmental samples: A review
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- Authors
- Neuwald, I. J., Hübner, D., Wiegand, H. L., Valkov, V., Borchers, U., Nödler, K., Scheurer, M., Hale, S. E., Arp, H. P. H., & Zahn, D.
- Affiliations
- Hochschule Fresenius (DE)
- IWW Water Centre (DE)
- DVGW - Technologiezentrum Wasser (DE)
- Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NO)
- Corresponding author
- Zahn, Daniel
- Venue
- Environmental Science & Technology
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2022-05-04
- Volume
- 56
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 6380-6390
- ISSN
- 0013-936X (ISSN-L)
- 1520-5851
- OpenAlex
- W4225384735
- Cited by
- 237
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 75 · 2025: 63 · 2024: 59 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 12
- FWCI
- 14.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- Locations
- Environmental Science & Technology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Umweltbundesamt (FKZ 3719 65 408 0)
- Bundesministerium f?r Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit (3719654080)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Water Treatment and Disinfection
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fluoride Effects and Removal
- Keywords
- per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, drinking water contamination, trifluoroacetate, trifluoromethanesulfonate, hexafluoroisopropanol, bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, PFAS removal, PFAS regulation
- MeSH terms
- Biological Assay, Environmental Monitoring, Fluorine, Fluorocarbons, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Drinking Water
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