Distribution and sources of polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the River Rhine watershed
Abstract
The concentration profile of 40 polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in surface water along the River Rhine watershed from the Lake Constance to the North Sea was investigated. The aim of the study was to investigate the influence of point as well as diffuse sources, to estimate fluxes of PFAS into the North Sea and to identify replacement compounds of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). In addition, an interlaboratory comparison of the method performance was conducted. The PFAS pattern was dominated by perfluorobutane sulfonate (PFBS) and perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) with concentrations up to 181 ng/L and 335 ng/L, respectively, which originated from industrial point sources. Fluxes of SigmaPFAS were estimated to be approximately 6 tonnes/year which is much higher than previous estimations. Both, the River Rhine and the River Scheldt, seem to act as important sources of PFAS into the North Sea.
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The total discharge of PFASs varies significantly, ranging from 10 g per day to 10,000 g per day, depending on water usage and the capacity of sewage treatment plants.
“The total discharge of PFASs varies significantly, ranging from 10 g per day [124] to 10,000 g per day mol [125], depending on water usage and the capacity of sewage treatment plants.”
From Industrial Applications, Environmental Fate, Human Exposure, and Health Effects of PFAS (2025) · cites this paper as [125]
Section 3.3 (p. 16) says estimated PFAS mass flows may vary with water discharge and intermittent releases from wastewater treatment plants. It does not report the 10 g/day figure to which this citation is attached, or attribute variation to sewage-treatment-plant capacity. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOverflow of wastewater from combined sewers during wet season may lead to increased PFAS concentrations.
“It has also been reported that overflow of wastewater from combined sewers during wet season may lead to increased PFAS concentrations (M ¨ oller et al., 2010; Podder et al., 2021).”
From Occurrence of emerging and persistent organic pollutants in the rivers Cam, Ouse and Thames, UK (2025) · cites this paper as Möller et al., 2010
Section 3.2 (p. 12) reports increased PFAS concentrations downstream of a wastewater-treatment-plant discharge. It does not identify combined-sewer overflow or wet-season conditions as the cause; searches for those terms found no supporting passage. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured∑PFCA+PFSA concentrations in river water declined from 2008 to 2013 and were similar between 2013 and 2016.
“Earlier studies reported legacy PFAS concentrations in river water taken from similar sampling sites in 2008 and 2013,12,13,17 and ∑PFCA+PFSA concentrations have declined from 2008 to 2013, whereas the concentrations are similar between 2013 and 2016 (present study) (SI Figure S2).”
From Presence of Emerging Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in River and Drinking Water near a Fluorochemical Production Plant in the Netherlands (2017) · cites this paper as [17]
In 2008, when PFOA was still produced, a downstream sampling location had elevated PFOA concentrations of about 34 ng/L compared with other locations.
“Also, PFOA concentrations taken at a sampling location downstream in 2008 (when PFOA was still produced), contained elevated PFOA concentrations (∼34 ng/L) compared to other locations.17”
From Presence of Emerging Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in River and Drinking Water near a Fluorochemical Production Plant in the Netherlands (2017) · cites this paper as [17]
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- Authors
- Möller, A., Ahrens, L., Surm, R., Westerveld, J., van der Wielen, F., Ebinghaus, R., & de Voogt, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Amsterdam (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Möller, Axel
- Venue
- Environmental Pollution
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2010-10
- Volume
- 158
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 3243-3250
- ISSN
- 0269-7491 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2053595853
- Cited by
- 356
- References
- 3
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 39 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 12.34
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Environmental Pollution (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (publishedVersion)
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht Zentrum für Materialforschung und kustenforschung (The Helmholtz Center Geesthacht) (submittedVersion)
- UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Pharmaceutical Science › Fluorine in Organic Chemistry
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Toxic Organic Pollutants Impact
- Keywords
- polyfluoroalkyl substances, PFAS, Rhine River, surface water contamination, point source, diffuse sources, North Sea, Lake Constance, PFBS, perfluorobutanoic acid, industrial pollution, interlaboratory comparison
- MeSH terms
- Caprylates, Environmental Monitoring, Fluorocarbons, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Water Supply, Alkanesulfonic Acids, Rivers
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