A Comprehensive Statewide Spatiotemporal Stream Assessment of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in an Agricultural Region of the United States
Abstract
Public concern regarding per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) has grown substantially in recent years. In addition, research has documented multiple potential agriculture-related release pathways for PFAS (e.g., biosolids and livestock manure). Nevertheless, little research on the environmental prevalence of PFAS has been conducted in agricultural regions of the United States. To fill this gap, we conducted the first statewide spatiotemporal assessment of PFAS in Iowa streams across a region of intense agricultural activity. At least one PFAS was detected at 19 of the 60 stream sites sampled (32%) with 10 different PFAS detected statewide. The number of PFAS detected in the stream samples ranged from one to nine. While PFAS were detected in agricultural streams, sites with the most PFAS detected and in the highest concentration were small, effluent-affected streams where wastewater treatment plant discharge is driving stream PFAS concentrations. No individual PFAS had an exposure:activity ratio (EAR) of >1.0 (exposure concentration shown to trigger observed adverse biological activity). Five stream locations, however, had at least one EAR of >0.001, a precautionary effect screening threshold. Additional targeted temporal sampling would be beneficial to specifically capture potential agricultural source applications and corresponding runoff conditions to fully characterize the prevalence of PFAS in such agricultural systems.
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The majority of PFAS occurrence studies have focused on urbanized regions with known point sources, highlighting the need for monitoring in rural or less-characterized areas.
“Additionally, the majority of PFAS occurrence studies have focused on urbanized regions with known point sources, 10 highlighting the need for monitoring efforts in rural or lesscharacterized areas.”
From Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Surface Water and Fluvial Sediments of a Rural Gulf Coast Watershed: A Year-long Spatiotemporal Assessment (2026) · cites this paper as [21]
Few field studies have simultaneously examined PFAS across both spatial and temporal dimensions and multiple environmental compartments.
“however, few have simultaneously examined both dimensions across multiple environmental compartments.”
From Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Surface Water and Fluvial Sediments of a Rural Gulf Coast Watershed: A Year-long Spatiotemporal Assessment (2026) · cites this paper as [21]
Other occurrence studies in rural regions are limited to state-wide surveys.
“Other occurrence studies in rural regions are limited to state-wide surveys.”
From Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Surface Water and Fluvial Sediments of a Rural Gulf Coast Watershed: A Year-long Spatiotemporal Assessment (2026) · cites this paper as [21]
Statewide surveys of Iowa and Alabama concluded that agriculturally dominated watersheds had sporadic PFAS detections.
“statewide surveys of Iowa and Alabama yielded conclusions that agriculturally dominated watersheds had sporadic PFAS detections”
From Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Surface Water and Fluvial Sediments of a Rural Gulf Coast Watershed: A Year-long Spatiotemporal Assessment (2026) · cites this paper as [21]
Long-chain PFAS tend to partition to river sediments.
“Long-chain PFAS tend to partition to river sediments (Fagbayigbo et al., 2022; Kolpin et al., 2021), so these findings may reflect that the Mississippi River is a major receiver of industrial and municipal wastewater or that Mississippi River sediments may serve as a source of sorbed and remobilized long-chain PFAS (Balgooyen and Remucal, 2022).”
From PFAS in Iowa drinking water sources: Chemical and geospatial patterns (2025) · cites this paper as Kolpin et al., 2021
Such observations are typical for effluent-dominated or -influenced streams during low-flow conditions.
“Such observations are typical for effluent-dominated or -influenced streams during low-flow conditions.51−53”
From Sources and Pathways of PFAS Occurrence in Water Sources: Relative Contribution of Land-Applied Biosolids in an Agricultural Dominated Watershed (2025) · cites this paper as [51]
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- Authors
- Kolpin, D. W., Hubbard, L. E., Cwiertny, D. M., Meppelink, S. M., Thompson, D. A., & Gray, J. L.
- Affiliations
- United States Geological Survey (US)
- University of Iowa (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kolpin, Dana W.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Environmental Science & Technology Letters
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2021-10-12
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 981-988
- ISSN
- 2328-8930 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3205884584
- Cited by
- 67
- References
- 13
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 1
- FWCI
- 3.21
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Environmental Science & Technology Letters (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Geological Survey
- Center for Health Effects of Environmental Contamination, University of Iowa
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Toxic Organic Pollutants Impact
- Keywords
- per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, PFAS, agricultural streams, Iowa, wastewater treatment plant discharge, biosolids, livestock manure, spatiotemporal assessment, agricultural runoff, water quality
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