Occurrence and Fate of Perfluorochemicals in Soil Following the Land Application of Municipal Biosolids
Abstract
The recent implementation of soil and drinking water screening guidance values for two perfluorochemicals (PFCs), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), reflects the growing concerns regarding the presence of these persistent and bioaccumulative chemicals in the natural environment. Previous work has established the potential risk to the environment from the land application of industrially contaminated biosolids, but studies focusing on environmental risk from land application of typical municipal biosolids are lacking. Thus, the present study investigated the occurrence and fate of PFCs from land-applied municipal biosolids by evaluating the levels, mass balance, desorption, and transport of PFCs in soils receiving application of municipal biosolids at various loading rates. This study is the first to report levels of PFCs in agricultural soils amended with typical municipal biosolids. PFOS was the dominant PFC in both biosolids (80-219 ng/g) and biosolids-amended soil (2-483 ng/g). Concentrations of all PFCs in soil increased linearly with increasing biosolids loading rate. These data were used to develop a model for predicting PFC soil concentrations in soils amended with typical municipal biosolids using cumulative biosolids loading rates. Mass balance calculations comparing PFCs applied vs those recovered in the surface soil interval indicated the potential transformation of PFC precursors. Laboratory desorption experiments indicated that the leaching potential of PFCs decreases with increasing chain length and that previously derived organic-carbon normalized partition coefficients may not be accurate predictors of the desorption of long-chain PFCs from biosolids-amended soils. Trace levels of PFCs were also detected in soil cores from biosolids-amended soils to depths of 120 cm, suggesting potential movement of these compounds within the soil profile over time and confirming the higher transport potential for short-chain PFCs in soils amended with municipal biosolids.
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Similar depth-distribution behavior has been reported in prior field studies.
“Similar behavior has been reported in prior field studies (Washington et al., 2010; Sepulvado et al., 2011; Baduel et al., 2017; Casson & Chiang, 2018; Dauchy et al., 2019).”
From PFAS concentrations in soils: Background levels versus contaminated sites (2020) · cites this paper as Sepulvado et al., 2011
Trace PFAS levels were detected to 120 cm depth in soil cores from biosolids-amended soils, suggesting movement within the soil profile and higher transport potential for short-chain PFASs in such soils.
“Trace levels of PFASs were detected in soil cores from biosolids-amended soils to depths of 120 cm, suggesting potential movement of these compounds within the soil profile over time and confirming the higher transport potential for short-chain PFASs in soils amended with municipal biosolids (Sepulvado et al., 2011).”
From Short- and long-chain perfluoroalkyl substances in the water, suspended particulate matter, and surface sediment of a turbid river (2016) · cites this paper as Sepulvado et al., 2011
Nonpoint sources, such as runoff from contaminated soils and streets due to biosolid applications, as well as wet and dry atmospheric deposition, contribute significantly to PFAS pollution.
“Nonpoint sources, such as runoff from contaminated soils and streets due to biosolid applications, as well as wet and dry atmospheric deposition, contribute significantly to PFAS pollution [131].”
From Industrial Applications, Environmental Fate, Human Exposure, and Health Effects of PFAS (2025) · cites this paper as [131]
PFCAs have higher mobility than PFSAs.
“confirm that PFCAs have a higher mobility than PFSAs (Sepulvado et al., 2011).”
From Modelling the sorption behaviour of perfluoroalkyl carboxylates and perfluoroalkane sulfonates in soils (2021) · cites this paper as Sepulvado et al., 2011
Urban areas could be expected to have a greater density of potential PFAS sources compared to agricultural and undeveloped landscapes.
“Urban areas could be expected to have a greater density of potential PFAS sources compared to agricultural and undeveloped landscapes, although biosolids are recognized as a potential PFAS source on agricultural lands.50”
From Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Groundwater Used as a Source of Drinking Water in the Eastern United States (2022) · cites this paper as [50]
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- Authors
- Sepulvado, J. G., Blaine, A. C., Hundal, L. S., & Higgins, C. P.
- Affiliations
- Colorado School of Mines (US)
- Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago (US)
- Corresponding author
- Higgins, Christopher P.
- Venue
- Environmental Science & Technology
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2011-03-29
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 19
- Pages
- 8106-8112
- ISSN
- 0013-936X (ISSN-L)
- 1520-5851
- OpenAlex
- W2038158587
- Cited by
- 399
- References
- 15
- Citations by year
- 2026: 37 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 45 · 2021: 43 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 24 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 11
- FWCI
- 13.98
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Environmental Science & Technology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Water Environment Research Foundation
- Water Research Foundation
- Edna Bailey Sussman Foundation
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Wastewater Treatment and Reuse
- Keywords
- perfluorochemicals, perfluorooctanoic acid, PFOS, municipal biosolids, land application, biosolids-amended soil, mass balance, desorption, leaching potential, partition coefficient, soil core, vertical transport, loading rate
- MeSH terms
- Caprylates, Chicago, Cities, Environmental Monitoring, Fluorocarbons, Kinetics, Sewage, Soil, Soil Pollutants, Surface Properties, Time Factors, Linear Models, Alkanesulfonic Acids
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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